tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45945975405566503232024-03-06T03:58:39.821+11:00Notes from HarefieldReflections by Kevin Wheldall on reading, books, education, family, and life in general.Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.comBlogger23125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-56549097463693194872020-08-30T16:00:00.000+10:002020-08-30T16:02:19.355+10:00Of Canesten, Context, and Comprehension<p><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">At the risk of sounding a little indelicate, I relate the following personal incident. As many of you would know Canesten cream is very useful and is effective for treating thrush and similar fungal infections. Similarly, Fisiocrem is a great product for bringing relief to sore joints, like your knees. It has a pleasant warming effect when applied externally to the skin. All well and good. All good that is until one needs to use both at the same time and, momentarily distracted, one mixes them up. This can be a disturbing, not to say alarming, experience. I leave the rest to your imagination ...</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">The point being that both products are very effective for their intended purpose but confusing the two can cause problems. Let’s look at what happens if you use the right product for the wrong job in another situation.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">One of the major battle lines in the reading wars concerns the widely popular three cuing system advocated by whole language, latterly ‘balanced literacy’, enthusiasts to teach reading. Use of contextual clues is a key ingredient in this approach, usually to the neglect of systematic phonics instruction. So, is using contextual cues always ‘a bad thing’? Not necessarily, but it can be if used for the wrong purpose, just like Canesten or Fisiocrem. Balanced literacy proponents regard it as a means of learning to read words, to decode text in effect. For this purpose, it is woefully inadequate and mostly ineffective, for most children. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">So, do phonics enthusiasts ignore, or disdain, the use of context in learning to read? As an approach to teaching word recognition or decoding, the answer is yes. But that is not to say that using contextual clues is not helpful in another way, to make sense of a word that the child can decode but is unaware of what it means; perhaps what the object actually is after having successfully decoded its name using phonics. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">Take the following sentence from a cowboy story.;<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm 61.15pt 0.0001pt 1cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">“Seeing the rattlesnake was about to strike, Rusty quickly took his trusty pistol from its holster and aimed at the snake’s head.” <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">The word ‘pistol’ is easy to decode but it is a relatively unusual word and the child may possibly not have heard it before. But the context makes it fairly easy to work out what it means. Rusty is a cowboy. Cowboys often wear holsters. Rusty is in danger and takes from his holster something to protect himself from the rattlesnake that is going to attack him, and he takes aim with it. It can only be a handgun of some kind, such as a revolver. So, a pistol likely means some sort of gun. The child has deduced and learned from context the meaning of the unknown word pistol, a type of handgun.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">But if the child were not able to decode the word pistol and tried to use context to work out the word, it is highly unlikely that guessing the word from the context would result in pistol. More likely the child would have guessed at the word gun or revolver. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; margin: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: -webkit-standard, serif;">And as Chuck Perfetti reminded us years ago, in the early nineties, Colgate is not the same word as toothpaste, however well it might fit the context of the sentence.<o:p></o:p></span></p>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-60688195952585613232017-06-10T16:47:00.000+10:002017-06-11T18:29:41.753+10:00Is changing your mind like changing your underwear?<style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 25.15pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">“Progress is impossible without change, and those who cannot change
their minds cannot change anything.” </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 25.15pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">George Bernard Shaw</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It must be over 25 years since I last changed my underwear.
No, wait; let me rephrase that: It must be over 25 years since I last changed <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the brand</i> of underwear I wear. While my
family may disagree, my allegiance to Marks and Spencer’s undies was perhaps one
of the last vestiges of my Pommie origins to leave me. After all, if it was
good enough for the royal family, it was surely good enough for me. And this
from a lifelong republican, no less. But I have finally succumbed to the lure
of Bonds and I am the happier for it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It is not flattering to say of someone that they change
their minds as often as they change their underwear but why do we tend to view
changing one’s mind as a sign of weakness or as a moral failing. If a friend
says ‘I’ve changed my mind’, the temptation to respond with “Does it work any
better?” is almost irresistible. Keynes probably did not say:<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> “When the facts change, I change
my mind. What do you do, sir?” But he should have. And J K Galbraith did say: “</span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Faced
with the choice between changing one's mind and proving that there is no need
to do so, almost everyone gets busy on the proof."</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To broaden my outlook, I’ve been
reading a little bit about Foucault lately. His followers object vociferously
to him being described as a Marxist but in fact he was, early on in his career.
In his first book, when he was also a member of the (Stalinist) Communist Party
in France, he took a Marxist line. But by the time he published a second
edition, he not only took out all references to a Marxist perspective but also apparently
did his best to ensure that the earlier version was well and truly buried. I
find this strange. Why not simply state that you have changed your mind? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Like many a wild child of the late
sixties, I too was seduced by the easy answers of radical socialism at university
but had changed my mind to such an extent by the time I was in my early 30s
that I stood as a parliamentary candidate for the newly formed Social
Democratic Party in the ‘Falklands’ general election of 1983; quite a change.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This reluctance to change one’s mind
is particularly prevalent in education not least because education is not an
evidence-based profession. Nowhere is this more obvious than in the teaching of
reading. As the eminent psychologist Keith Stanovich has noted: "that direct
instruction in alphabetic coding facilitates early reading acquisition is one
of the most well established conclusions in all of behavioral science.” In
spite of some thirty or forty years of scientific research into how reading
works and how it is best taught, however, the received wisdom promulgated in most
initial teacher training institutions continues to be the whole language view
(or balanced literacy as it was subsequently, if not convincingly, re-branded).
Why is this the case? What stops people, and especially education academics,
from changing their mind?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As I have admitted before, I have not always
been an advocate of phonics instruction. When I first came to Australia in 1990,
I held what, in retrospect, may seem like a curious mix of views. While being a
strong enthusiast of applied behavior analysis in education, I was, however,
not a supporter of direct, explicit phonics instruction, as my writing around
this time demonstrates. Having witnessed examples of shocking phonics excesses
in schools in the West Midlands, whereby children struggling to learn to read
barely ever saw a book, I was deeply suspicious. Under the influence of colleagues
such as Coral Kemp at Macquarie University Special Education Centre (MUSEC),
however, I rapidly saw the error of my ways. The available scientific evidence in
favour of my former views just did not stack up whereas the evidence in favour
of phonics instruction was overwhelming. And so I very quickly changed my mind.
The rest, as they say, is history. Over twenty five years later, I am still the
happier for it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">These days, I sometimes find myself
as perplexed by the attitudes of some phonics enthusiasts as I am by their whole
language opponents. The latter seem to find no problem in ignoring the
scientific evidence in favour of phonics instruction because many educationists
deny the validity of empirical research in education, opting for a more
‘philosophical’ approach. Equally alarming to me, however, is the reluctance of
some advocates for phonics instruction to take on board more recent research
findings and to adjust their models of instruction accordingly. Some seem to
hold the view that we now know all that we need to know and resist, with
vigour, those within the same camp who deviate from the received wisdom. </span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU">The Dalai Lama
once said that should science disprove the benefits of meditation, he would be
willing to rethink thousands of years of Buddhist tradition. “If science proves
facts that conflict with Buddhist understanding, Buddhism must change
accordingly,” he said. “We should always adopt a view that accords with the
facts.” If the Dalai Lama can be so open-minded, why do so many educationists
refuse to reconsider their position in the light of the evidence?</span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As for those who appear to deny the reality of science per se
in favour of the view that even scientific research evidence is socially
determined (and we're back with Foucault and his mates here), let’s give the
last word on this subject to popular author Alexander McCall Smith. In his 2005
book, ‘44 Scotland Street’, he comments:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU">“The problem was
that some people preached social philosophies that paid no attention to
reality. Some French philosophers had a tendency to do this, Big Lou had noted:
they did not care in the slightest if their theories could have disastrous
consequences – because they considered themselves above such consequences. It
was perfectly possible to portray scientific knowledge as socially determined –
and therefore not true in any real sense – when one was safe on the ground in
Paris; but would you ask the same question in a jet aircraft at thirty-five
thousand feet, when that same knowledge underpinned the very engineering that
was keeping one up in the air?” (p.151)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So,
have you changed your mind? Does it work any better?</span></div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-42521359913179818232017-06-10T16:39:00.002+10:002017-06-12T12:25:35.574+10:00Crap detecting for beginners<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
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<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">[The following is an
edited version of a speech I gave at the launch of this book*
in May 2017.]</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">A recent Four Corners program featured the results from a ‘shadow shop’
of 240 pharmacies conducted by Choice. Pharmacists were asked to recommend
something for these actors posing as shoppers who claimed that they had been “feeling
really stressed lately”. 26% of pharmacists recommended Bach Flower remedies, a
product for which there is absolutely no scientific evidence for efficacy. Another
3% recommended homeopathic products. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">Non-evidenced based fads like this predilection for so-called ‘natural’
remedies are widespread. Just look at Gwynneth Paltrow’s GOOP website, for
example. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I had no idea just what you
could do with a jade egg! But it is in educational interventions and therapies
for children with developmental disorders that we see some of the loopier
manifestations of this generic, worldwide, anti-scientific trend. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">And this is not even a recent phenomenon. I have now been working in the
field of educational psychology and special education for over 45 years. After
graduating in Psychology from the University of Manchester in 1970, I started
work immediately as Professor Peter Mittler’s research associate at the ‘Hester
Adrian Research Centre for the study of learning processes in the mentally handicapped’,
as children with intellectual disabilities were then known. In those days, such
children did not attend school, special or otherwise, they attended Junior
Training Centres (or JTCs). They were regarded as ineducable and could only be
‘trained’.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">It was on one of my first visits to JTCs that I encountered Dolman
Delacato Psychomotor Pattterning. I was quite unprepared for what I saw being
practised which looked for all the world to me like witchcraft. The little girl
with a severe disability lay on a table while two adults moved her limbs in
patterns resembling crawling movements, all the while chanting child specific
rhymes. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -2.6pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">It was seriously weird and
extraordinarily time-consuming. (Those interested in this now discredited and
largely discarded practice might be interested to read the critique provided by
Quackwatch. (</span><a href="https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/patterning.html"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/patterning.html</span></a><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;"> .)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">This was my first encounter with educational/therapeutic snake oil, at
least as an adult, but it was by no means my last. Interestingly, I was advised,
at the time, to be cautious about criticising the method because its proponents
were notoriously litigious; again this was the first, but not the last, time I
was to encounter this tactic for silencing dissenting voices critical of
non-evidence based practices and procedures. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">In recent years, my esteemed colleagues, Max Coltheart and Linda Siegel,
among others, have been threatened with legal action after offering critical
commentary on dubious educational and therapeutic practices. Linda received a
threatening letter from the lawyers representing the Arrowsmith program but
they did not follow through. Legal representatives for the Dore program soon
gave up hassling Max when Macquarie University made clear that they were right
behind him and challenged Dore to a public debate. It was not long after this
that the Dore organisation in Australia, at least, was forced to close down
completely. But, as I like to say, when one Dore closes, another one opens! There
is always another bogus program lying in wait for the uninformed and desperate.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">My academic colleagues and I at Macquarie University Special Education
Centre (MUSEC), which I had the honour of directing for over twenty years,
shared a passion for evidence-based practice long before it became flavour of
the month in educational circles. We were united in our loathing of the
plethora of bogus claims for dodgy programs, with which the history of special
education was littered, and for which there was no evidence for efficacy. It
was my colleague Dr Jennifer Stephenson who, in 2005, urged us as a group to
launch the MUSEC Briefings, single page, factual summaries on relevant topics
of interest, many of which examined the evidence for popular interventions. Our
aim was to highlight programs and practices for which there was good scientific
evidence for efficacy and those for which there was not. The MUSEC Briefings
became very popular and were, indeed still are, widely distributed. It is sad,
then, to report that the future of the Briefings is in doubt, following the
recent closure of MUSEC by the University. (But see the following repository: </span><a href="https://figshare.com/articles/MUSEC_Briefings_Archive/5096455"><span style="color: #954f72; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 11.0pt;">https://figshare.com/articles/MUSEC_Briefings_Archive/5096455</span></a><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> )</span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">The demise of the Briefings is a source of sadness but now we have a
new, even more all-encompassing, reference resource which is destined to become
a classic, I’m sure, and the first of many editions. Caroline Bowen and Pamela
Snow’s witty, informative and, indeed, exhaustive, new text will be our future
‘go to guide’ when we are confronted with an intervention for children with
developmental disorders that we have not previously encountered. May I take
this opportunity to express my admiration for their painstaking efforts in
tracking down so many useless interventions. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">Their new text, ‘Making Sense of Interventions for Children with
Developmental Disorders: A guide for parents and professionals’, is destined
to become the field guide for amateur and professional crap detectors
everywhere. As I have already mentioned it is remarkably inclusive. As an
enthusiastic crap detector myself, I came across coverage of many interventions
that I knew little about or had not heard of before at all. Take FODMAPS for
example. It was only a month or two ago that I first heard this term, from my
haematologist. I did not know then, but I do now, that low FODMAPS diets are
being promoted as a treatment for children with autism spectrum disorders (or
ASD).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">What is or are FODMAPS? FODMAPS are, wait for it, ‘fermentable, oligo-,
di-, monosaccharides and polyols’. And some people say the MultiLit acronym is
contrived! FODMAPS refers to fermentable, poorly absorbed, short-chain,
carbohydrates but I prefer Caroline and Pamela’s no-nonsense description:
“FODMAPS are in disreputable farty-foods like beans, onion and broccoli, and
also in milk, apples, wheat, high-fructose corn syrup, and more”. They go on to
comment, and I quote: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">“The casein-free (CF), GF (gluten free), and GFFC (gluten free and
casein free) diets have a new competitor for consumer moolah in the ASD food
fad field: the low-FODMAP diet. For years, ASD advocacy groups, families and
clinicians have fallen for sharp advertising of the GFCF diet, with
scientific-sounding phrases: ‘evolving paradigm’, ‘promising research trend’, ‘new
understandings’, ‘latest discoveries’ – but soon, the Low FODMAP diet may
become the new black, despite no demonstrable link as yet, between FODMAPS and
ASD.”</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">I have quoted this passage at length to give you a flavour of the
engaging style in which this book is presented. It is lively and opinionated,
in the very best sense, and is clearly written by human beings rather than by
academic Daleks, the preferred speech style preferred by so many wannabe
authorities. Moreover, as the comedian Eric Morcombe used to say of comedy
partner Ernie </span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wise’s supposed</span><span lang="EN-AU" style="color: #222222; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="color: #222222; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">toupée</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: </span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">“you can’t see the join”. Seriously,
you can’t tell where one author stops and the other picks up. This continuity
of voice is a remarkable achievement. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">Coming in at nearly 400 pages including appendices, it is a hefty tome
but its coverage is encyclopaedic and never dull. In their epilogue, they
provide two extensive lists of programs and procedures. The first (shorter)
list is headed ‘Could try harder’ and puts on notice the developers of these
interventions that might show some promise but which are in sore need of
sufficient quality evidence for efficacy. Here we find, for example: controlled
crying, Lindamood Bell, the Orton-Gillingham/Multi-Sensory Structured Language
Program, Positive Behaviour Support and Triple-P Positive Parenting, to name
but five.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">In the second, far longer list, headed bluntly and unequivocally ‘No convincing
evidence’, we find, for example, many old friends such as: BrainGym, Fast For</span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Word, the Arrowsmith Program,
behavioural optometry and, last but not least, Reading Recovery.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I could go on. There is so much to delight and intrigue in
this book</span><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">. So much crap
to detect and so little time. Let me finish by saying this: “Buy this book.” In
fact, buy two copies and give one to a friend. They’ll thank you for it.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-AU;">*‘Making Sense of Interventions for Children
with Developmental Disorders: A guide for parents and professionals’ by
Caroline Bowen and Pamela Snow, published by J & R Press Ltd.</span></i></div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-65511584702459680412016-01-30T13:01:00.001+11:002016-01-30T13:01:45.680+11:00Minister, reading recovery requires more than Reading Recovery
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<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPS'; font-size: 12.000000pt; font-weight: 700;">An open letter to NSW Education Minister Adrian Piccoli
</span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Dear Minister<br /> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">I have been impressed by your determination to enhance the effectiveness of
</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">teaching in NSW schools. Your recent policy initiatives designed to improve teacher
quality, by requiring that future teachers meet higher entry standards and can also
explicitly demonstrate their proficiency in literacy and numeracy, have much to commend
them. The next step is to improve the quality of instruction provided, especially for those
whose needs are greatest, children from Indigenous and socially disadvantaged
backgrounds. These students commonly comprise the greater proportion of young students
struggling to learn to read. I would like to draw your attention to the needs of these
struggling young readers.
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Your Department of Education must think that I sound like a broken record because I
have been complaining about the Department’s continued use of the Reading Recovery
program for well over twenty years now. But I am hopeful that you will decide that it is
finally time to take action. Please bear with me while I reiterate a few of the arguments I
have raised in the past.
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">First, may I point out that my colleagues and I were commissioned by your
Department to carry out a thorough evaluation of Reading Recovery as far back as 1991.
You may not be aware of this because our research reports have not been formally released
by your department </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPS'; font-size: 12.000000pt; font-style: italic;">to this day</span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">. Fortunately, a clause in our contract permitted us to report
our findings in academic research journals and at academic conferences. Consequently, our
findings were published in what was then the foremost reading research journal, the
Reading Research Quarterly, and our study was subsequently reported by international
authorities on reading as one of the more “methodologically sophisticated” studies on
Reading Recovery, because it was a true experimental, randomised control trial.
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">So what did we find that your Department (at the time) seemed so reluctant to make
public? Our first research report in 1993 was, in some respects, really quite positive about
Reading Recovery. We found that, after about fifteen weeks of intervention, struggling
readers in Year 1 did indeed perform better than their matched peers who did not receive
Reading Recovery. In fact, some advocates of Reading Recovery have, over the years,
reported our study </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPS'; font-size: 12.000000pt; font-style: italic;">in support </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">of its continuing use. But, as always, the devil is in the detail.
When we looked more closely at our data, we found that Reading Recovery appeared to be
effective for only one in every three students who undertook the program: one student did
not ‘recover’, one student would have improved even without the intervention (as our
control and comparison groups showed us), and one did ‘recover’. Unfortunately, we also
found that the students for whom Reading Recovery was effective tended to be those<span style="font-family: serif;"> </span>whose difficulties were less severe, those students who were not so far behind as the others.
We concluded that, even if it were shown to be effective, one-to-one individual tutoring in
Reading Recovery might be thought to be an expensive way of helping struggling readers;
yet it was, in reality, </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPS'; font-size: 12.000000pt; font-style: italic;">three times more expensive </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">than imagined because it was only
effective for one in three struggling readers and those whose problems were relatively
minor.
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Over the years, numerous studies on the efficacy of Reading Recovery have been
published since then and the arguments have gone back and forth. In 2012, a large group of
international reading researchers even went so far as to publish an open plea for Reading
Recovery to be dropped in favour of methods supported by scientific research evidence on
</span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">how reading works and how best to remediate difficulties. It fell on deaf ears. In New
South Wales and other states in Australia, as in many other western countries, scarce
funding for struggling readers has continued to be directed to an expensive program, the
demonstrated efficacy of which is, at the very least, equivocal.
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Let’s now jump ahead to the present. Last year two very important reports on
Reading Recovery were released. The first was from New Zealand, where the program was
originally developed by the late Dame Professor Marie Clay, undoubtedly a formidable
and highly regarded reading researcher in her day. The New Zealand research team led by
Professors James Chapman and Bill Tunmer analysed NZ Ministry of Education Reading
Recovery data covering 10 years, along with data from three PIRLS surveys (2001, 2006,
2011), to assess the impact of Reading Recovery on the reading performance of students in
New Zealand. They concluded: </span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">“</span><span style="font-family: 'Times'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Our analyses of RR data from annual monitoring reports and from the 2011 PIRLS
survey indicate that RR has had little or no impact on reducing New Zealand’s
relatively large literacy achievement gap because the programme is of limited benefit
to those children who need help the most, especially Maori/Pasifika children and
children from low-income backgrounds. We also reported research indicating that
positive maintenance effects for large numbers of students successfully discontinued
from RR are modest to non-existent.”
</span></i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Times'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">The second, more recent, report comes from your own Department’s Centre for
Education Statistics and Evaluation and was released just before Christmas (2015). Again
this study was based on a very large sample of young struggling readers, all children
throughout the state who received Reading Recovery in 2012. The summary of the report
(published as Learning Curve, </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Issue 11), reads as follows: </span><br />
<br />
<i><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">“The results showed some evidence that RR has a modest short-term effect on
reading skills among the lowest performing students. However, RR does not appear
to be an effective intervention for students that begin Year 1 with more proficient
literacy skills. In the longer-term, </span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPS'; font-size: 12.000000pt; font-weight: 700;">there was no evidence of any positive effects of
RR on students’ reading performance in Year 3</span><span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">.” (my emphasis)
</span></i><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">So there’s no longer any need to take just my word for it, Minister; your own Department
has concluded that Reading Recovery may have only a modest short-term effect but that
even this ‘washes out’ by Year 3; in other words a pointless and worthless exercise.
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Now, we may argue backwards and forwards about the relative efficacy of Reading
Recovery for some students but I put this to you, Minister: If Reading Recovery were so
powerful an intervention for young struggling readers as is claimed, would we not expect
to find, after twenty five or more years of implementation across the western world, strong,
positive research findings, reported repeatedly, testifying to the undoubtedly large and
long-lasting effects of this program? Should it not clearly have been shown to be earning
its keep by now?
</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: 'TimesNewRomanPSMT'; font-size: 12.000000pt;">Minister, for the sake of the children for whose education you are responsible, I urge
you to show regard for these research findings on Reading Recovery, including those from
your own Department, and to provide educational leadership by discontinuing the
earmarked funding for this program of marginal utility and to encourage schools to try
other methods and programs for helping struggling readers based on the best available
scientific research evidence.
</span><br />
</div>
</div>
</div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-13316854989077777632015-05-27T15:46:00.000+10:002015-05-27T15:46:19.544+10:00On Marx, parking fines and Positive Teaching<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 39.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Inscribed upon his tomb</span><span style="color: #181818; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"> in Highgate cemetery in London, are these words by Karl Marx:</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-bottom: 11.25pt; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 39.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-outline-level: 1; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="color: #181818; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">“The philosophers have only <i>interpreted</i> the
world, in various ways. The point, however, is to <i>change</i> it.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Have you ever had the experience of being flagged down by a traffic
cop and when you wind down the window, he says: “Mate, I just wanted to
congratulate you on a</span> great piece of driving back there” …? No…? Me
neither. Mind you the other day, when I got back to my car, there was a note
under the wiper that said ‘Parking Fine’ – so that was nice.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Why do we laugh at stories like
these? Simply because society tends to work the opposite way around, most of
the time. We don’t seek to approve and applaud desirable behaviour; we expect
it, and when we don’t get it, when we become aware of behaviour of which we do
not approve, then we punish it with barbed comments, dirty looks, reprimands,
penalties, social ostracism, deprivation of liberty and, in some countries, even
death.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
So we expect people to behave
well, in a socially responsible way, and we punish them if they don’t. Almost
certainly not the most effective way of moderating adult behaviour, it is a
downright cruel way of treating young people – particularly children of school
age – who are still trying to learn how to behave appropriately.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Our findings on classroom behaviour management <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Over the years, I have been
involved in a number of studies, carried out both here in Australia and in the
UK, with both primary and high school teachers, that have looked at the ways in
which teachers respond to students’ behaviour in the classroom. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
If you talk to teachers about
their use of praise and approval in the classroom, they say that they use praise
a great deal in their day-to-day interactions with students. And, to a degree,
they are right; about 50% of the responses of primary school teachers to their
students are positive comments offering approval and praise statements.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
When we look more closely,
however, at the types of behaviour that they are praising and reprimanding, a
different picture merges. For responses to student academic behaviour –
answering questions, written work, completion of maths problems and so on –
teachers typically give nearly four times as much praise as they give
reprimands and disapproval.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
But when we look at their
reactions to students’ classroom social behaviour – keeping to the rules, not
disturbing others, getting on with their work quietly, for example – teachers
typically give four times as many reprimands as they give praise and approval.
In fact, they hardly ever praise students for behaving well; in some classes,
it is a total non-event.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Sadly, this is particularly the
case for boys. Even though the amounts of time boys and girls spend
appropriately academically engaged, or ‘on-task’ as we call it, is not that
dissimilar, with boys being a little less engaged, they receive <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">twice as many reprimands f</i>or their
perceived inappropriate classroom social behaviour. According to our
calculations, boys in primary school are reprimanded for their behaviour about
40 times per week.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Most Australian primary teachers,
then, while frequently praising academic work, hardly ever praise students for
behaving well in the classroom. But they often reprimand students for behaving
inappropriately, especially boys.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Indentifying common challenges<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
When we look at what Australian
primary school teachers think about children’s classroom behaviour, there are a
few surprises. First, according to our research, about half of them feel that
they spend more time on problems of order and control than they feel that they
should have to. In an average class of 28 students, they typically report four (about
15%) to be behaviourally troublesome, of whom three are typically boys. In
fact, over 90% cited a boy as their most troublesome student in the class. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
But what was it that the students
actually did that teachers typically found to be most problematic?
Surprisingly, more serious misbehaviours such as physical aggression were cited
by less than 10% as being a problem. Nearly 50% of teachers cited ‘Talking out
of Turn’ (or TOOT) as the most troublesome behaviour in their classes, followed
by ‘Hindering Other Children’ (or HOC). These surprising findings replicate
what we also found in the UK and what other researchers have subsequently found
too. The findings for high school teachers are very similar.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.0pt; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: 36.0pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
To summarise, <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">most Australian
primary teachers are bothered by the behaviour of some of their students, but
the most common and troublesome behaviours are relatively trivial, like TOOT
and HOC. They are not particularly serious, but they are time-wasting,
irritating, stressful and, ultimately, exhausting for teachers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<b>Using Positive Teaching to
manage behaviour<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
The good news is that these sorts
of behaviours, from boys or girls, are relatively easy to manage using the
methods and procedures of Positive Teaching, one of the foci of our research
for many years now. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Achieving effective classroom
behaviour management is as easy as ABC; that is, if we consider the Antecedents,
the Behaviour, and the Consequences. By the careful control of the antecedents
or the context in which behaviours occur and the consequences following
behaviour, disruptive classrooms can be brought into a state where they are
more pleasant and positive for both teacher and students, and where real
learning at least has the opportunity to take place. By becoming more positive
in their interactions with students, everybody benefits.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A word on praise and reward<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
A great deal of damage has been
done by educational critics such as Alfie Kohn by perpetuating the myth that praise
and rewards are actually harmful. The key to the successful use of praise and
reward is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contingency</i>: who is being
praised by whom for what under which specific circumstances. Non-contingent and
undeserved praise and reward, scattered like confetti with no thought to the contingencies,
might indeed do more harm than good. But positive teachers know that to be
effective, their use of praise and reward strategies has to be carefully
thought through and delivered with skill, tact and subtlety. This is what our
new course, the Positive Reaching Workshop, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>aims to do.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
To conclude, it is almost impossible
for effective classroom learning to take place where disruptive and
inappropriate behaviour is frequently exhibited by students. Moreover, initial
teacher training is commonly criticised for providing inadequate training in
methods of effective classroom behaviour management. Teachers typically claim
that they had to learn how to manage a class by trial and error 'on the job', having
been given vast amounts of theory but precious little advice on what to do
actually do. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
As Marx chided us, it is not
enough merely to attempt to interpret the world, the point is to change it.
This is precisely what Positive Teaching aims to do: to change student
behaviour by changing teacher behaviour.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">For more information about the
MultiLit Positive Teaching Workshop, visit </span><a href="http://www.multilit.com/professionaldevelopment/positive-teaching-pd/"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">www.multilit.com/professionaldevelopment/positive-teaching-pd/</span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-44793255151265623272015-02-18T17:23:00.000+11:002015-02-18T17:31:16.293+11:00A Matter of Balance
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<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Preamble<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> For the online magazine, The
Conversation (dated February 18, 2014), Stewart Riddle has contributed an
article entitled ‘A balanced approach is best for teaching kids how to read’:<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 7.1pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://theconversation.com/a-balanced-approach-is-best-for-teaching-kids-how-to-read-37457">http://theconversation.com/a-balanced-approach-is-best-for-teaching-kids-how-to-read-37457</a><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 7.1pt;">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Its publication reminded me of an article I contributed to the Bulletin
of Learning Difficulties Australia in 2009, ‘A matter of balance’ which
addresses similar themes albeit from a rather different point of view. Six
years later, little has changed and I see little reason to resile from the
views expressed. It is reproduced below.</span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In some respects, there has
been little progress on the battlefield in the literacy wars, neither side
giving way, but the language describing the opposing camps has changed.
Advocates of a ‘whole language’ approach rarely describe their position in
these terms these days, redolent though it sounded of all things good and
natural. Like a sort of literacy muesli, you could feel it building up your
moral superiority. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">But all good things come to
an end and ‘whole language’ began to be exposed as the sham it is, based on
unsubstantiated predicates emanating from romantic theory about what should
ideally be rather than what is empirically founded in fact. As it became harder
and harder to cling to discredited notions, such as the idea that learning to
read was a natural process like learning to talk, a new term, ‘balanced’,
entered the literacy lexicon to describe essentially the same model with a tiny
tip of the cap to phonics as a method of last resort, to be used only when all
of their discredited, ineffective methods for teaching decoding had failed. The
term ‘balanced’ also had the added benefit of ‘getting your retaliation in
first’ by its implication that those favouring an emphasis on phonics
instruction are clearly not balanced - ‘unbalanced’ in fact. And, of course, if
your opponents are not balanced, it is only a short step towards depicting them
as extremists who favour phonics to the exclusion of everything else. This is
unfortunate since even the most fervent advocates of a synthetic phonics
approach today would never seek to claim
that phonics is all that is needed to teach reading effectively. They too
favour a ‘balanced’ approach - but that seat is already taken …<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">As I have said before,
elsewhere, the inconvenient truth is that advocates of whole language or
balance and those who favour a phonics emphasis actually agree on more than
they disagree. If we look at the five pillars of effective reading instruction
as identified by research (sometimes known as the ‘five big ideas’), both sides
would have little to quarrel about with regard to the importance of teaching
phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary or comprehension. The key distinction
is on the little matter of phonics and how and when phonics should be taught.
Even the most rabid adherents of the old school whole language philosophy today
claim (at least in public) that there is clearly room for phonics in the mix –
some even claim that they have always said this … <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">But here is the rub: they
typically do not advocate phonics instruction as the method of first choice for
teaching decoding and prefer, if it has to occur at all, that it be incidental
as opportunity arises. Those on the other side, favouring a strong emphasis on
phonics, however, are adamant that phonics must be taught in a structured,
systematic, intensive way from the outset and not left to happenstance. To be
fair, it is important to emphasise that those of us with long memories also
recall the bad old days of bad phonics teaching when children with reading
difficulties rarely saw a real book but instead read lists of sounds to the
exclusion of almost anything else – not an edifying spectacle. Very few of
these old style phonics backwoodsmen exist still today, if any, and it
sometimes seems as if the advocates of whole language or balance are fighting,
at least in part, an imaginary enemy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">And so, in effect, we are
all ‘balanced’ these days while still having our differences in terms of how
reading should best be taught. For what it is worth, my version of balanced is,
however, rather different. At the risk of sounding like a promotion for a new
dog food, I favour what I would call a <i>‘scientifically
balanced’</i> approach to teaching reading.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">By a ‘scientifically
balanced’ program of reading instruction, I mean instruction in the five key
areas of reading and related skills as identified by the scientific research
literature (the five pillars or ‘big ideas’ referred to earlier), as advocated
by the reports of the National Reading Panel in the United States and
reiterated in the Australian National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy and
the Rose Report in the UK. This constitutes the <i>what </i>of that which needs to be taught for students to become
effective readers. But we must consider not only the <i>what</i> of reading instruction but also the <i>how</i>. In a scientifically balanced approach, the methods employed
must also be based on the most effective methods of instruction as identified
by scientific research; that is instruction that is systematic, intensive,
explicit and (in the case of phonics) synthetic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Over the past thirty or more
years, by means of steady, cumulative scientific research, we have learned a
very great deal more about how reading works and how it may best be taught. And
yet some are still clinging, romantically, to notions and methods that are now clearly
well past their sell-by date. The ideas underpinning Reading Recovery, for
example, were good in the seventies, ground-breaking even, but we now know that
the use of what is, in effect, ‘incidental phonics’ as part of the mix is very
inefficient and has led to a program of only marginal cost effectiveness. It is
time to move on, to put young and low-progress readers first, instead of pride
or ideology, and to use what has clearly been shown by scientific evidence to
work effectively for most students most of the time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-61417937450189338712014-03-28T12:58:00.000+11:002014-03-28T13:08:23.010+11:00Should we dispense with the D word?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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By Kevin Wheldall, Anne Castles and Mandy Nayton</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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[Note: This article appeared in a
more abbreviated form in <i>The Conversation</i>:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-do-away-with-dyslexia-24027">https://theconversation.com/should-we-do-away-with-dyslexia-24027</a>]<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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The word dyslexia seems to arouse strong emotions, both for
and against, and has a chequered history. Viewed by some as a device to spare
the blushes of middle class parents whose children struggle to learn to read,
it is seen by others as a credible explanation for the reading difficulties
their child has been experiencing.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In their recently published book, <i>The Dyslexia Debate (</i><a href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/psychology/educational-psychology/dyslexia-debate"><i>http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/psychology/educational-psychology/dyslexia-debate</i></a><i>),</i> Joe Elliott and Elena Grigorenko open
up a can of worms. But it is a can that needed opening, and we applaud these authors
for bringing this important issue up for discussion and debate. Elliott and
Grigorenko argue that the term “dyslexia” should be abandoned – that it is an
imprecise and unhelpful label that does nothing to assist the individuals to whom
it is applied. <i><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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So what do Elliott and Grigorenko say, and why do they say
it?<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Two key points need to be made before proceeding. First of
all, this debate is largely about terminology. Elliott and Grigorenko are not
denying the reality of children’s reading difficulties, or that these
difficulties need to be identified and treated as early as possible. What they
are arguing is that giving the label of “dyslexia” to children who experience
such problems is not helpful.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Secondly, it is important to keep in mind that reading
ability falls on a continuum in the population; it is normally distributed like
height or weight. This means that deciding whether a child does or does not
have a reading difficulty will always involve applying a somewhat arbitrary
cut-off. In this sense, a diagnosis of dyslexia is similar to a diagnosis of
obesity, but quite different from a diagnosis of, say, measles where it is
clear when someone has it and when they don’t.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
With these points in mind, let’s look more closely at
Elliott and Grigorenko’s two main arguments:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b>1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></b><!--[endif]--><b>There
is no agreement about how to diagnose dyslexia<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Elliott and Grigorenko’s first key point is that applying
the label of dyslexia is intrinsically unscientific because there is no
universally agreed set of criteria for its diagnosis. What one clinician might
call dyslexia, another does not. Some apply the label to any child who
struggles with learning to read; others apply it only when the reading
difficulty is accompanied by strengths in other intellectual domains; still
others when the reading difficulty is associated with particular cognitive “markers”
such as phonological or visual deficits. And even within these different
definitions, there is variability associated with where the cut-off for an
impairment is applied: consequently, estimates of the prevalence of dyslexia may
range from 3% - 20% of the population.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It is undoubtedly true that the term “dyslexia” has been used
in a wide variety of contexts over the years, and that this has led to considerable
confusion. We think that three particular factors have contributed to the
problem:<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Firstly, there has been a failure to distinguish between <i>research</i> and <i>clinical </i>uses of the term. Researchers often select samples of “dyslexics”
with very specific profiles. They do so in order to answer particular research
questions, or to control for factors in which they are not interested in a
certain context. For example, they may select their sample to have average or
above average IQ, so that this factor does not influence their results. But the
fact that the use of these specific selection criteria can be valuable in a
research context does not mean that they should necessarily inform a clinical
diagnosis of dyslexia. Similarly, researchers may decide that, for their
experimental purposes, ‘dyslexia’ will be defined very generously as those
students scoring below one standard deviation from the mean. But this does not
necessarily mean that this (relatively large) proportion of the population
(about 16%) should be regarded as dyslexic and hence in need of special
treatment and/or afforded educational dispensations.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Secondly, there has been a tendency to conflate symptoms and
causes within definitions of dyslexia. Sometimes the condition is defined
purely in terms of the presenting problem – a reading accuracy and/or fluency
difficulty – with the diagnostician remaining
agnostic as to its underlying cause. In other cases, the definition
incorporates a particular theoretical perspective as to why the reading
difficulty arose in the first place. The
most prominent and certainly widely-supported of these theories centres on
underlying language-based phonological deficits, but there are also a host of
other neural, visual and attentional theories. Given the wide range of theories as to the
causes of dyslexia, it is not surprising that this has generated an equally
wide range of definitions. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thirdly, the term is widely used, and very frequently
misused, by non-experts in the field and by the mainstream media. The label is
particularly popular with promoters of dyslexia “cures” of dubious merit,
including such things as: nutritional supplements, exercise regimes, coloured
glasses and ‘high frequency’ ear plugs. The briefest of Google searches
confirms this fact - and this, of course, only serves to add to the confusion. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But, these points aside, is it the case that there is no
generally agreed set of criteria for the diagnosis of dyslexia? We think that
this may be overstating the case. Amongst experts in the field, there is in
fact a substantial degree of consensus about what is meant by the term and how
it should be defined in a clinical context. Dyslexia is widely viewed as a <i>severe and enduring reading difficulty that
persists</i><i><span lang="EN-US"> despite high quality instruction and
evidence-based intervention</span></i><span lang="EN-US">. This is enshrined in documents such as the Rose report (</span><a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006pdf-EN-01.pdf"><span lang="EN-US">http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006pdf-EN-01.pdf</span></a><span lang="EN-US">)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">in the
UK and the report of the Australian
Dyslexia Working Party (2010) (</span><a href="http://www.dyslexiaaustralia.com.au/DYSWP.pdf"><span lang="EN-US">http://www.dyslexiaaustralia.com.au/DYSWP.pdf</span></a><span lang="EN-US">).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The
definition of dyslexia above is effectively couched within the widely-accepted
“Response to Intervention” model of remediation (RTI) (http://www.musec.mq.edu.au/community_outreach/musec_briefings#17):
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a model
that seeks to match the amount and
nature of reading intervention to the support needs of the child. In doing so,
it provides relatively straightforward means of distinguishing between children
who are performing poorly on reading measures because they have not received the
appropriate instruction for some reason and children who are performing poorly
because they have severe and enduring learning difficulties that require
sustained intervention (whom we might classify as having “dyslexia” or some
other label).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The RTI
model works as follows: All children receive a systematic program of scientific
evidence-based reading instruction right from the outset of schooling, ie a
program of instruction that is predicated upon what reading scientists have
found to be critical and most effective in terms of teaching children to learn
to read. This is referred to as <i>Tier 1 </i>instruction.
The reading progress of all students is closely monitored, and those children
whose performance, following instruction, is poor on curriculum-based measures,
regardless of the reason, are identified as low-progress readers and are provided
with more intensive small-group reading instruction. This is referred to as <i>Tier 2 </i>and typically involves about 20%
of the age cohort. (In some socially
disadvantaged areas, of course, this figure will be much higher.) The progress
of Tier 2 children is again closely monitored and those who continue to have
low scores, that is, who are not “responding to Tier 2 intervention”, are
provided with even more intensive one-on-one intensive remediation and support.
This is <i>Tier 3 </i>instruction. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Children
who still struggle following a period of intensive Tier 3 intervention or who
progress at an unusually slow rate, are viewed as having, a </span><i>severe and enduring reading difficulty that
persists</i><i><span lang="EN-US"> despite high quality instruction and
evidence-based intervention. </span></i><span lang="EN-US">This has been estimated to be about 3% of the population of students. Thus,
without needing to look to underlying causes, or to associated deficits, a
small subgroup of children can be identified who can reliably and consistently
be given a diagnosis of “dyslexia” on the basis of their need for continuing
intensive literacy instruction. However, it is generally viewed as important to
gather additional clinical information from appropriate professionals at this
point to contribute to the development of effective individual education plans (IEPs)
with recommendations for both remediation and accommodations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">There are
two key features of this definition. First, it makes a distinction between
children who are struggling with reading because they have not had the
appropriate instruction (perhaps because they have not attended school
regularly, or have had poor teaching) and those who are struggling despite
having had sufficient opportunities. Secondly, it focuses the diagnosis at the
level of reading itself. Scientists have come a long way in developing precise
and detailed theories of the reading process, and these have been translated
into valid and reliable clinical assessment tools. It is our view that, armed
with these tools, well-trained clinical experts are in a stronger position to
provide a scientifically-informed diagnosis of dyslexia than Elliott and
Grigorenko suggest. Whether the actual term ‘dyslexia’ is used or some other
label is employed, this small group exists and can be identified.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoCommentText">
<span lang="EN-US">It is
only fair to note, however, </span>that while RTI does have the potential to:
improve reading outcomes significantly and will, in addition, identify students
at risk of reading failure far earlier, create a more equitable system and
should result in better ongoing monitoring and assessment of all students, we
are only seeing a minority of schools implementing anything even vaguely
resembling RTI at this stage in Australia. This makes the use of it, at this
point, as the mainstay identification model challenging, to say the least. This
is not to say, however, that it should not be an important goal. It also means
that until RTI is established, students will not necessarily be picked up as
falling behind until later in primary school or even into secondary school.
This means that the transition through the three tiers is not as
straightforward as it is in the early years. Identified students will simply
move straight into a Tier 2 or even Tier 3 intervention. And finally, while it
is our firm view that the RTI model has many advantages, it is viewed by some
as being limited in that it does not individualise, it does not diagnose, and
it does not classify.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoCommentText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Reading interventions will be the
same whether dyslexia is diagnosed or not.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The second key point made by Elliott and Grigorenko is that
a diagnosis of dyslexia does not have any implications for treatment. Again,
they are broadly correct. Let us suppose that two 8-year old girls present at a
clinic, both of whom can barely read. One girl has frequently been ill and has
attended school only intermittently over the past two years. As a result she
has fallen behind in learning to read. The other girl has a history of
struggling to learn to read in spite of having been provided with additional
instruction. The latter child might well be diagnosed with “dyslexia”; the
former most likely not. But the programs of intervention put in place for each
child would most likely differ very little in both content and method. A large
body of evidence tells us that the most effective thing we can do for each of
these children is to provide them with systematic, intensive evidence-based
reading remediation, targeted at the gaps in their reading skills.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So does this mean, as Elliott and Grigorenko argue, that a
diagnosis of dyslexia (or some other label) is unnecessary and redundant? Again,
we feel that this may overstate things. Although the nature of the treatments
provided to these children will be similar, the evidence tells us that their <i>length and intensity</i> are likely to be
quite different. Our first girl should respond quickly and well once she
receives the required intervention; our second girl, by definition based on the
RTI model, is likely to need sustained and ongoing support. She may need
one-on-one assistance and, ultimately, compensatory technology.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
More generally, the fact that the treatment is similar
across the spectrum of a condition does not mean that there is no justification
for giving a label to those at the extreme end. In the same way that the
diagnosis of “obesity” serves to identify the most severe and at-risk cases along
the continuum of weight, and the diagnosis of “hypertension” serves to identify
the most severe and at-risk cases along the continuum of blood pressure, a
diagnosis of dyslexia can identify the most severe and at-risk cases along the
continuum of reading. Such labels focus attention and resources where they are
most urgently needed. Where we might disagree is in the term we use to describe
such children and their condition.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There remain the quibbles about terminology. Many
researchers and clinicians do not like the term “dyslexia” because it
medicalises the condition and invokes a disease model that is not appropriate.
They prefer a term like “reading disability” or “reading impairment”. Others,
however, counter that the use of a medical term like dyslexia attracts
attention and resources to a problem that may not be so forthcoming if these
other terms were used. And as Dorothy Bishop notes, this concern seems to be borne
out in the case of the much less visible condition of “Specific Language
Impairment” (<a href="http://deevybee.blogspot.com.au/2010/12/whats-in-name.html">http://deevybee.blogspot.com.au/2010/12/whats-in-name.html</a>).
Finally, not to be underestimated is the positive effect that a diagnosis of
dyslexia has on the parents and children involved, validating their concerns
and often providing a much-needed boost to self-esteem. For these reasons, there
is considerable divergence in the field as to which label should be preferred
(and indeed divergence even amongst we three authors!)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Elliott and Grigorenko argue that the most important thing
is that all children who encounter literacy difficulties receive the help that
they need. We could not agree more. At the end of the day, what we choose to call
the small proportion of students with severe and persistent reading problems is
not nearly so important as ensuring that they receive the support that they need.
In the past, passionate advocates for dyslexia may have gilded the lily by
claiming that up to 20% of children are dyslexic (and some still do). This is
unhelpful and ultimately counter-productive since government agencies will
baulk at the expense of providing special treatment and dispensations for such
a large proportion of the population. Nor is such expenditure warranted when
the reading difficulties of the vast majority of low-progress readers may
readily be attended to in school with effective small group Tier 2 and individualised
Tier 3 interventions. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Kevin Wheldall is an
Emeritus Professor of Macquarie University and Director of the MultiLit
Research Unit. </span></i><i><span lang="EN-US">You can follow him on Twitter (@KevinWheldall) where he comments on reading and education
(and anything else that takes his fancy).</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Email: <a href="mailto:kevin.wheldall@pecas.com.au">kevin.wheldall@pecas.com.au</a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Professor
Anne Castles is Head of the Department of Cognitive Science at Macquarie
University and Deputy Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and
its Disorders. You can follow her on Twitter (@annecastles), where she comments
on issues related to reading difficulties and other cognitive disorders. <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i>Mandy
Nayton is currently the Executive Officer of DSF Literacy and Clinical Services
in Perth, Western Australia as well as President of AUSPELD, The Australian
Federation of SPELD Associations. She is an educational and developmental
psychologist and qualified teacher with extensive experience in the field of
literacy education. Mandy is an Adjunct Research Fellow at Curtin University’s
School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, and a member of the Federal
Government’s Schools Disability Advisory Council.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-8135936392743187352014-02-04T12:44:00.000+11:002014-02-04T12:48:35.128+11:00MUSEC Briefings on Topics of Interest<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<span style="color: #4c4d4f; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">This item is not a blog post as such but comprises a listing of, and a link to, a series of short one page reports on topics of interest (often
controversial) in special education, known as the MUSEC Briefings, written by
members of Macquarie University Special Education Centre (MUSEC).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<span style="color: #4c4d4f; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><o:p>The link to the series of MUSEC Briefings is:</o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<o:p style="line-height: 22.399999618530273px;"><span style="color: #4c4d4f;"><a href="http://www.musec.mq.edu.au/community_outreach/musec_briefings/">http://www.musec.mq.edu.au/community_outreach/musec_briefings/</a></span></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">
<o:p style="line-height: 22.399999618530273px;"><span style="color: #4c4d4f;">(You might need to copy and paste this into your browser.)</span></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<span style="color: #4c4d4f; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<span style="color: #4c4d4f; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">The titles of the MUSEC Briefings<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(in
reverse date order ie most recent first) together with key
references are as follows<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSEC Briefing 38
- Response Cards<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span id="goog_1156363065"></span><strong><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">References</span></strong><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l50 level1 lfo59; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berrong, A. K., Schuster, J. W., MOrse, T. E., & COllins, B.
V. (2007). The effects of response cards on active participation and social
behaviour of students with moderate and severe disabilities. JOurnal of
Physical and Developmental Disabilities, 19, 187-199. dpi
10.1007/s10882-007-9047-7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l50 level1 lfo59; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gardner, R., Heward, W. L., & Grossi, T. A. (1994). Effects of
response cards on student participation and academic achievement: A systematic
replication with inner-city students during whole-class science instruction.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 63-71.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l50 level1 lfo59; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Munro, D. W., & Stephenson, J. (2009). The effect of response
cards on student and teacher behaviour during vocabulary instruction. Jounral
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42, 795-800.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 align="center" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSEC Briefing 37 - Cogmed<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<strong><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt;">References</span></strong><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Apter, B. (2013). Improving working memory.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Educational Psychology in
Practice, 29</em>(1), 96-97.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Chacko, A., Bedard, A.C., Marks, D.J., Feirsen, N., Uderman, J.Z.,
Chimiklis, A., Rajwan, E., Cornwell, M., Anderson, L., Zwilling, A. &
Ramon, M. (2013). A randomized clinical trial of Cogmed Working Memory Training
in school-age children with ADHD: A replication in a diverse sample using a
control condition.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>42</em>(6),
769-783.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and programs that improve
children's executive functions<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 21,</em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span>335-341<em>.</em><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Egeland, J., Aarlien, A. K., & Saunes, B. (2013). Few effects
of far transfer of working memory training in ADHD: A randomized controlled
trial.<span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span><em>PloS One, 8</em>(10),
1-9.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Kronenberger, W. G., Johnson, A.
C., Steeger, C. M., & Morrissey, R. A. (2013). Exploration of an adaptive
training regimen that can target the secondary memory component of working
memory capacity.<span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span><em>Memory
& Cognition, 41</em>(5), 726-737.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gray, S.A., Chaban, P., Martinussen, R., Goldberg, R., Gotlieb,
H., Kronitz, R., Hockenberry, M. & Tannock, R. (2012). Effects of a
computerized working memory training program on working memory, attention, and
academics in adolescents with severe LD and comorbid ADHD: a randomized
controlled trial.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53</em>, 1277-1284.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Holmes, J., & Gathercole, S.E. (2013). Taking working memory
training from the laboratory into schools.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Educational
Psychology</em>. Online May 10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karin I. E. & Dahlin, K.I.E. (2010). Effects of working memory
training on reading in children with special needs.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Reading and Writing, 24</em>,
479-491.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kasper, L.J., Alderson, R.M., & Hudec, K.L. (2012). Moderators
of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD): A meta-analytic review.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Clinical
Psychology Review, 32</em>(7), 605-617.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory
training effective? A meta-analytic review.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Developmental
Psychology, 49</em>(2), 270-291.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Morrison, A.B., & Chein, J.M. (2011). Does working memory
training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training
working memory.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Psychonomic
Bulletin</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>&<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Review, 18</em>(1), 46-60.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Papp, K.V., & Snyder, P.J. (2012). Editorial to accompany -
Training the brain: Fact and fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation.<em>Brain
and Cognition, 79</em>(2), 158.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pascoe, L., Roberts, G., Doyle, L. W., Lee, K. J., Thompson, D.
K., Seal, M. L., Josev, E.K., Nosarti, C., Gathercole, S., & Anderson, P.
J. (2013). Preventing academic difficulties in preterm children: a randomised
controlled trial of an adaptive working memory training intervention - IMPRINT
study.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>BMC Pediatrics</em>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>13</em>, 144-156.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rabipour, S., & Raz, A. (2012). Training the brain: Fact and
fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Brain
and Cognition, 79</em>(2), 159-179.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Redick, T.S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T.L., Hicks, K.L. Fried,
D.E., Hambrick, D.Z., Kane, M.J., & Engle, R.W. (2013). No evidence of
intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized,
placebo-controlled study.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 142</em>(2), 359-379.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Riccio C.A., & Gomes H. (2013). Interventions for executive
function deficits in children and adolescents.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 2</em>(2),
133-140.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K.L., & Engle, R.W. (2012). Cogmed
working memory training: Does the evidence support the claims?<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Journal of Applied Research in
Memory and Cognition, 1</em>(3), 185-193.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is
working memory training effective?<span class="apple-converted-space"><i> </i></span><em>Psychological
Bulletin, 138</em>(4), 628-654.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l35 level1 lfo60; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., & Kawashima, R. (2010). Effects of
working memory training on cognitive functions and neural systems.<em>Reviews
in the Neurosciences, 21</em>(6), 427-49.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSEC Briefing 36 -
Interactive Metronome Training<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<strong><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt;">References</span></strong><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l26 level1 lfo61; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Taub, G,E; McGrew, K, S & Keith, T, Z. ( 2007). Improvements
in interval time tracking and effects on reading achievement.<em>Psychology in
Schools, 44,</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>849-863.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
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<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSEC Briefing 35 -
Mnemonics<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<strong><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt;">References</span></strong><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo62; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Berkeley, S.L., & Marshak,
L. (2010). Mnemonic strategies: Evidence-based practice and practice-based
evidence.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Intervention in
School and Clinic, 46</em>, 79 - 86. <cite><span style="font-style: normal;">doi:</span></cite>10.1177/1053451210374985<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo62; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wolgemoth, J.R., Cobb, R.B., & Alwell, M. (2008). The effects
of mnemonic interventions on academic outcomes for youth with disabilities: A
systematic review.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Learning
Disabilities Research, 23</em>, 1-10.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span></div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #00798e; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSEC Briefing 34<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>- Using Scripts to Teach Conversation
Skills to Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<strong><span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt;">References</span></strong><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l61 level1 lfo63; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001).
Teaching children with autism to engage in conversational exchanges: Script
fading with embedded textual stimuli.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34</em>, 81-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‐</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">84. doi:
10.1901/jaba.2001.34-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‐</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">81<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l61 level1 lfo63; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Wichnick, A. M., Vener, S. M., Pyrtek, M., & Poulson, C. L.
(2010). The effect of a script-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‐</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> fading procedure on
responses to peer initiations among young children with autism.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em>Research in Autism Spectrum
Disorders, 4,</em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>290-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Palatino Linotype"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">‐</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">299. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.016<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">_____________________________________________________________________<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 33 -
Behavioural Optometry<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">American Academy of Pediatrics (2011).
Joint technical report - Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision.
Pediatrics, 127, e818-e856. Retrieved from
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/127/3/e818<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l21 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Barrett, B.T. (2009). A critical
evaluation of the evidence supporting the practice of behavioural vision
therapy. <i>Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics</i>,29, 4-25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 32 -
The Tomatis Method as a Treatment for Autism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Ferrer, E. (2008). Brief report: The effects of Tomatis sound therapy on
language in children with autism. <i>Journal of Autism and other
Developmental Disorders</i>, 38, 562-¿566. doi: 10.1007/s10803-¿007-¿ 0413-¿1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Interventions to facilitate auditory, visual and motor integration in autism: A
review of the evidence. <i>Journal of Autism and other Developmental
Disorders,</i> 30, 415-¿421.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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& Williams, K. (updated May 30, 2007). Auditory integration training and
other sound therapies for autism spectrum disorders. [Cochrane Review].
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 31 -
Visual Activity Schedules<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Allday, R.A. (2008). Using visual
strategies to improve classroom success for students with autism. <i>Special
Education Perspectives, 17</i>, 94-109.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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S. L. (2009). Helping students with autism spectrum disorders in general
education classrooms manage transition issues. <i>Teaching Exceptional
Children</i>, <i>41</i> (4) 16-21.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 30 -
Learning Styles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E.,
& Ecclestone, K. (2004) <i>Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16
learning. A systematic and critical review. </i>London: Learning and
Skills Research Centre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hattie, J. (2009). <i>Visible
learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement.</i> London:
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Kavale, K., & Forness, S. (1987).
Substance over style: Assessing the efficacy of modality testing and
teaching. <i>Exceptional Children, 54,</i> 228-239. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Landrum, T.J., &McDuffie, K. A.
(2010). Learning styles in the age of differentiated instruction. <i>Exceptionality,
18,</i> 6-17.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l44 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D.,
& Bjork, R. (2009). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. <i>Psychological
Science in the Public Interest, 9,</i> 105-119.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 29 -
Functional Communication Training<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Durand, V. M., & Carr, E. G.
(1992). An analysis of maintenance following functional communication training.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(4), 777-794. doi:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-777<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Mirenda, P. (1997). Supporting
individuals with challenging behavior through functional communication training
and AAC: Research review. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 13(4),
207-225. doi:10.1080/07434619712331278048<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Wacker, D. P., Berg, W. K., Harding, J.
W., Barretto, A., Rankin, B., & Ganzer, J. (2005). Treatment effectiveness,
stimulus generalization, and acceptability to parents of functional
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<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing 28 -
Fast ForWord Language<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Borman, G.D., Benson, J.G., &
Overman, L. (2009). A randomized field trial of the Fast ForWord language
computer-based training program. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
31, 82-106.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Cohen, W., Hodson, A., O'Hare, A.,
Boyle, J., Durrani, T., McCartney, E., Mattey, M., Naftalin, L., & Watson,
J. (2005). Effects of computer-based intervention through acoustically modified
speech (Fast ForWord) in severe mixed receptive-expressive language impairment:
Outcomes from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Speech, Language and
Hearing Research, 48, 715-729.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Gillam, R.B., Loeb, D.F., Hoffman,
L.M., Bohman, T., Champlin, C.A., Thibodeau, L., Widen, J., Brandel, J., &
Friel-Patti, S. (2008). The efficacy of Fast ForWord language intervention in
school-age children with language impairment: A randomized controlled trial.
Journal<br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Given, B.K., Wasserman, J.D., Chari,
S.A., Beattie, K., & Eden, G.F. (2008). A randomized, controlled study of
computer-based intervention in middle school struggling readers. Brain and
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Pokorni, J.L., Worthington, C.K., &
Jamison, P.J. (2004). Phonological awareness intervention: Comparison of Fast
ForWord, Earobics, and LiPS. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 147-157.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Rouse, C.E., & Krueger, A.B.
(2004). Putting computerized instruction to the test: A randomized evaluation
of a 'scientifically based' reading program. Economics of Education Review, 23,
323-338.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Strong, G. K., Torgerson, C. J.,
Torgerson, D., & Hulme, C. (2010). A systematic meta-analytic review of
evidence for the effectiveness of the 'Fast ForWord' language intervention
program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 224-235.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing
Issue 27: Schema-based Instruction for Mathematics Word Problem-solving<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jitendra, A. (2002). Teaching students
math problem-solving through graphic representations. TEACHING Exceptional
Children, 34 (4), 34-38.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jitendra, A. (2007). Solving math word
problems: teaching students with leaning disabilities using schema-based
instruction, Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l31 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jitendra, A. K., George, M. P., Sood,
S., & Price, K. (2010). Schema-based instruction: facilitating mathematical
word problem solving for students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Preventing School Failure, 54, 145-151</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">MUSEC Briefing
Issue 26: Cellfield Program<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l29 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">The Efficacy of the Cellfield
Intervention for reading difficulties: An integrated computer-based approach
targeting deficits associated with dyslexia. Lee-Ann Prideaux, Kerry A. Marsh
and Dimitri Caplygin. (2005) <i>Australian Journal of Learning
Difficulties. 10, 2, </i>51-62.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> Kern, L., & Clemens, N. H.
(2008). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. <i>Psychology
in the Schools, 44</i>, 65-75.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Wannarka, R., & Ruhl, K. (2008).
Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: a
review of empirical research. <i>Support for Learning, 23,</i> 89-93.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l24 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Wheldall, K., & Bradd, L. (2010).
Classroom seating arrangements and classroom behaviour. In K. Wheldall
(Ed.), <i>Developments in educational psychology (second edition) (pp.
181-195)</i>. London: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="MB24"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 24: Specific and Contingent Teacher Praise</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: MB24;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l62 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (2010).
Teachers' use of approval and disapproval in the classroom. In K. Wheldall
(Ed.), <i>Developments in educational psychology (second edition) (pp.
153-180)</i>. London: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l62 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Gable, R. A., Hester, P. H., Rock, M.
L., & Hughes, K. G. (2009). Back to basics: Rules, praise, ignoring, and
reprimands revisited.<i>Intervention in School and Clinic, 44, </i>195-205<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l62 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., &
Copeland, S. R. (2000). Effect of varying rates of behavior-specific praise on
the on-task behavior of students with EBD.<i> Journal of Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders, 8</i> (1), 2-8.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="MB23"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 23: The Listening Program®</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: MB23;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l52 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association. (2004). <i>Auditory Integration</i> <i>Training</i> [Technical
Report]. Available from<a href="http://www.asha.org/policy/"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">http://www.asha.org/policy/</span></a>. doi:10.1044/policy.TR2004-00260<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Crncec, R., Wilson, S. J. & Prior,
M. (2006). The cognitive and academic benefits of music to children. <i>Educational
Psychology</i>, 26, 579-594. Doi:10.1080/01443410500342542<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Nwora, A. J. & Gee, B. M.
(2009). A case study of a five-year-old child with pervasive developmental
disorder-not otherwise specified using sound-based interventions. <i>Occupational
Therapy International, 16,</i> 25-43. Doi:10.1002/oti.263<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="22"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 22: Irlen Tinted Lenses and Overlays</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 22;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">American Academy of Ophthalmology.
(2009). Policy Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia and Vision. Retrieved
30th December 2009 from <a href="http://www.aao.org/about/policy/upload/Learning-Disabilities-Dyslexia-Vision-2009.pdf"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">http://www.aao.org/about/policy/upload/Learning-Disabilities-Dyslexia-Vision-2009.pdf</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hyatt, K. J., Stephenson, J., &
Carter, M. (2009). A review of three controversial educational practices:
Perceptual motor programs, sensory integration and tinted lenses. Education and
Treatment of Children, 32, 313-342.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Kavale, K. A., & Mostert, M. P.
(2004). The positive side of special education: Minimizing its fads, fancies
and follies. Lanaham, MD: Scarercrow Education.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Parker, R. M. (1990). Power, control,
and validity in research, <i>Journal of Learning Disabilities</i>, 23,
613-620<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="21"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 21: Choosing Effective Programs for Low Progress Readers</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 21;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> <b>References</b>: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Department of Education, Science and
Training. (2005). <i>Teaching reading.</i> Canberra: Department of
Education, Science and Training.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, NIH, DHHS. (2000).<i> Report of the National Reading
Panel: Teaching children to read (00-4769)</i>. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l23 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Rose, J. (2006). I<i>ndependent review
of the teaching of early reading: Final Report.</i> London: Department for
Education and Skills.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="20"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 20: Picture Exchange Communication System</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 20;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Preston, D. & Carter, M. (in
press). A review of the Efficacy of the Picture Exchange Communication System
intervention. <i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i>, DOI
10.1007/s10803-009-0763-y.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Sulzer-Azaroff, B., Hoffman, A. O.,
Horton, C. B., Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2009). The Picture Exchange
Communication System (PECS): What do the data say? <i>Focus on Autism and
Other Developmental Disabilities</i>,<i> 24</i>, 89-103.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="19"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 19: Sensory Integration</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 19;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo24; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Arendt, R. E., MacLean, W. E., &
Baumeister, A. A. (1988). Critique of sensory integration therapy and its
application to mental retardation. <i>American Journal on Mental
Retardation</i>, <i>92</i>, 401-411.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hoehn, T. P., & Baumeister, A. A.
(1994). A critique of the application of sensory integration therapy to
children with learning disabilities. <i>Journal of Learning Disabilities</i>, <i>2</i>7,
338-350.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Leong, H. M., & Carter, M. (2008).
Research on the efficacy of sensory integration therapy: Past, present and
future. <i>Australasian Journal of Special Education</i>, <i>32</i>,
83-99.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Devlin, S., Healy, O., Leader, G.,
& Reed, P. (2008). The analysis and treatment of problem behavior evoked by
auditory stimulation.<i>Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders</i>, <i>2</i>,
671-680.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Devlin, S., Leader, G., & Healy, O.
(2009). Comparison of behavioral intervention and sensory-integration therapy
in the treatment of self-injurious behavior. <i>Research in Autism
Spectrum Disorders</i>, <i>3</i>, 223-231.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Vargas, S., & Camilli, G. (1999). A
meta-analysis of research on sensory integration treatment. <i>American
Journal of Occupational Therapy</i>, <i>53, 189-198</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="18"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 18: Explicit Instruction for Students with Special Learning
Needs</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 18;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo26; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Apps, M., & Carter, M. (2006). When
all is said and done, more is said than done: Research examining constructivist
instruction for students with special needs. <i>Australian Journal of
Special Education</i>, <i>31</i>, 107-125.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l25 level1 lfo26; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ellis, L. A. (2005). <i>Balancing
approaches: revisiting the educational psychology research on teaching students
with learning difficulties.</i> Australian Education Review (No. 48).
Camberwell: Australian Council for Educational Research. Can be accessed at<a href="http://research.acer.edu.au/aer/6/"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">http://research.acer.edu.au/aer/6/</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hattie, J. (2009). <i>Visible
learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement.</i> London,
UK: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., &
Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An
analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based,
experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. <i>Educational Psychologist</i>, <i>4</i>1,
75-86.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="17"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 17: Response to Intervention</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 17;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo28; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Bender, W. N. & Shores, C. (Eds.).
(2007). <i>Response to intervention: A practical guide for every teacher.</i> Thousand
Oaks: Corwin Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo28; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Council for Exceptional Children
(2008). <i>Responsiveness to intervention: A collection of articles from
Teaching Exceptional Children.</i> Washington, DC: Council for Exceptional
Children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo28; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Fuchs, L. S. & Fuchs, D. (2007). A
model for implementing responsiveness to intervention. <i>Teaching
Exceptional Children, 39</i>, 14-20.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l33 level1 lfo28; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">US National Centre on Response to
Intervention <a href="http://www.rti4success.org/"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">http://www.rti4success.org</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="15"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 15: Weighted Vests</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 15;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo30; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Baranek, G. T. (2002). Efficacy of
sensory and motor interventions for children with autism. <i>Journal of
Autism and Developmental Disorders</i>, 32, 397-422.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo30; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Stephenson, J., & Carter, M.
(2009). The use of weighted vests with children with autism spectrum disorder
and other disabilities.<i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i>,
39, 104-114.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="14"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 14: Precision Requests</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 14;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l39 level1 lfo31; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l55 level1 lfo32; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Kehle, T. J., Bray, M. A., &
Theodore, L. A. (2000). A multi-component intervention designed to reduce
disruptive classroom behavior. <i>Psychology in the School</i>s, 37,
475-481.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l55 level1 lfo32; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Musser, E. H., Bray, M. A., Kehle, T.
J. & Jenson, W. R. (2001). Reducing disruptive behaviors in students with
serious emotional disturbance. <i>School Psychology Review</i>, 30,
294-304.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="13"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 13: Book Levelling</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 13;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo33; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Brabham, E. G., & Villaume, S. K.
(2002). Leveled text: The good news and the bad news. <i>The Reading
Teacher</i>, 55, 438-441.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jamison, R., L, & Burton, W.
(2002). Matching texts and readers: Leveling early reading materials for
assessment and instruction.<i>The Reading teacher</i>, 55, 348-356.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo34; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Pearce, S., Wheldall, K., &
Madelaine, A. (2006). MULTILIT book levels: Towards a new system for levelling
texts. <i>Special Education Perspectives</i>, 15, 38-56.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="12"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 12: Social Stories</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 12;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l56 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ali, S., & Frederickson, N. (2006).
Investigating the evidence base of Social Stories. <i>Educational
Psychology in Practice</i>, 22, 355-377.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l56 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Reynhout, G., & Carter, M. (2006).
Social stories for children with disabilities. <i>Journal of Autism &
Developmental Disorders</i>, 36, 445-469.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l56 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Rust, J., & Smith, A. (2006). How
should the effectiveness of Social Stories to modify the behaviour of children
on the autism spectrum be tested? <i>Autism</i>, 10, 125-138.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l56 level1 lfo36; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Sansosti, F., Powell-Smith, K., &
Kincaid, D. (2004). A research synthesis of social story interventions for children
with autism spectrum disorders. <i>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
Disabilities</i>, 19, 194-204.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="11"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 11: Dore/DDAT Exercise Program</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 11;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l46 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Reynolds, D., Nicolson, R. I., &
Hambly, H. (2003). An evaluation of an exercisebased treatment for children
with reading difficulties.<i>Dyslexia</i>, 9, 48-71<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l46 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Snowling, M., & Hulme, C. (2003). A
critique of claims from Reynolds, Nicolson & Hambly (2003) that DDAT is an
effective treatment for children with reading difficulties - 'lies, damned lies
and (inappropriate) statistics', <i>Dyslexia</i>, 9, 127-133<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l46 level1 lfo38; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">White, S., Milne, E., Rosen, S.,
Hansen, P., Swettenham, J., Frith, U., & Ramus, F. (2006). The role of
sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia: A multiple case study of dyslexic
children. <i>Developmental Science</i>, 9, 237-269<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
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<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="10"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 10: Parents Identifying Giftedness</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 10;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l51 level1 lfo39; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Alsop, G. (1997). Coping or
counselling: Families of intellectually gifted students. <i>Roeper Review</i>,
20(1), 28-. Retrieved November 11, 2005 from Expanded Academic ASAP database.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Copenhaver, R. W., & McIntyre, D.
J. (1992). Teachers' perceptions of gifted students. <i>Roeper Review</i>,
14, 151-153.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B.
(2004). <i>Education of the gifted and talented</i> (5th ed., pp.
32-44). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Gear, G. H. (1976). Accuracy of teacher
judgment in identifying intellectually gifted children: A review of the
literature. <i>Gifted Child Quarterly</i>, 20, 478-489.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jacobs, J. C. (1971). Effectiveness of
teacher and parent identification of gifted as a function of school
level. <i>Psychology in the Schools</i>, 8, 140-142.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Plunkett, M. (2000). Impacting on
teacher attitudes toward gifted students. <i>Australasian Journal of
Gifted Education</i>, 9(2), 33-42.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l38 level1 lfo40; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Richert, E. S. (1997). Excellence with
equity in identification and programming. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis
(Eds.), <i>Handbook of gifted education</i> (pp. 75-88). Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="9"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 9: Facilitated Communication</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 9;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jacobson, J. W., Foxx, R. M., &
Mulick, J. A. (2005). Controversial therapies for developmental disabilities;
Fad, fashion and science in professional practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., &
Schwartz, A. A. (1995). A history of facilitated communication: Science,
Pseudoscience, and Antiscience: Science working group on facilitated
communication. American Psychologist, 50, 750-765.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Montee, B. B., Miltenberger, R. G.,
& Wittrock, D. (1995). An experimental analysis of facilitated
communication. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 189-200.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l36 level1 lfo42; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Shane, H. C. (1994). Facilitated
communication: The clinical and social phenomenon. San Diego, CA: Singular
Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="8"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 8: Teacher Aides</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 8;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo44; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Giangreco, M. F., & Broer, S. M.
(2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are
we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and other Developmental
Disabilities, 20, 10-26.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo44; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Giangreco, M. F., Yuan, S., McKenzie,
B., Cameron, P., & Fialka, J. (2005). "Be careful what you wish
for..." Five reasons to be concerned about the assignment of individual
paraprofessionals. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 37(5), 28-34.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo44; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Giangreco, M. F., Edelman, S., Broder,
S. M., & Doyle, M. B. (2001). Paraprofessional support of students with
disabilities; Literature from the last decade. Exceptional Children, 68, 45-63.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="7"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 7: Behavious Chain Interruption Strategy</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 7;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Carter, M., & Grunsell, J. (2001).
The behavior chain interruption strategy: A review of research and discussion
of future directions. Journal of <i>The Association for Persons with
Severe Handicaps</i>, 26, 37-49.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Grunsell, J., & Carter, M. (2002).
The behavior chain interruption strategy: Generalization to out-of-routine
contexts. <i>Education and Training in Mental Retardation and
Developmental Disabilities</i>, 37, 378-90.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l60 level1 lfo46; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hunt, P., & Goetz, L. (1988).
Teaching spontaneous communication in natural settings using interrupted
behavior chains. <i>Topics in Language Disorders</i>, 9, 58-71.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l60 level1 lfo46; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Sigafoos, J., & Littlewood, R.
(1999). Communication intervention of the playground: A case study on teaching
requesting to a young child with autism. <i>International Journal of
Disability, Development and Education</i>, 46, 421-29.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="6"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 6: Knowing what works</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 6;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l58 level1 lfo48; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Odom, S. L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten,
R., Horner, R. H., Thompson, B., & Harris, K. (2005). Research in special
education: Scientific method and evidence-based practices. <i>Exceptional
Children, 71</i>, 137-148.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l58 level1 lfo48; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Greenwood, C. R. (2001). Science and
students with learning and behavior problems. <i>Behavioral Disorders, 27</i>,
37-52.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l58 level1 lfo48; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Stanovich, P. J., & Stanovich, K.
E. (2003). <a href="http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Stanovich_Color.pdf"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; padding: 0cm;">Using research and reason in education: How teachers can use
scientifically based research to make curricular and instructional decisions</span></a>(pdf).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="5"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 5: BrainGym®</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 5;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l47 level1 lfo49; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo50; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hammill, D. D. (2004). What we know
about correlates of reading. <i>Exceptional Children</i>, 70, 453-468.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo50; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Kavale, K., & Mattson, P. D. (1983).
"One jumped off the balance beam": Meta-analysis of perceptual-motor
training. <i>Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16</i>, 165-173.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo50; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S.
(2003). What is special about special education for students with learning
disabilities? <i>Journal of Special Education, 37</i>, 140-147.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="4"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 4: Curriculum-Based Measurement of Reading</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 4;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo52; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Deno, S. L. (1985). Curriculum-based
measurement: The emerging alternative. Exceptional Children, 52, 219-232.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo52; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Deno, S. L. (2003). Developments in
curriculum-based measurement. The Journal of Special Education, 37, 184-192.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo52; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Fuchs, L. S. (2004). The past, present,
and future of curriculum-based measurement research. School Psychology Review,
33, 188-192.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Madelaine, A., & Wheldall, K.
(1999). Curriculum-based measurement of reading: A critical review.
International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 46, 71-85.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l28 level1 lfo52; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Madelaine, A., & Wheldall, K.
(2004). Curriculum-based measurement of reading: Recent Advances. International
Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 51, 57-82.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; text-align: center;">
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<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="3"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 3: Reading Recovery for Young Struggling Readers</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 3;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References (updated November 2010):</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo54; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Reynolds, M., & Wheldall, K.
(2007). Reading Recovery twenty years down the track: Looking forward, looking
back. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54,
199-223.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo54; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K. & Madelaine,
A. (2009). The devil is in the detail regarding the efficacy of Reading
Recovery: A rejoinder to Schwartz, Hobsbaum, Briggs, and Scull. International
Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 56, 17-35.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo54; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Schwartz, R. M., Hobsbaum, A., Briggs,
C., & Scull, J. (2009). Reading Recovery and evidence-based practice: A
response to Reynolds and Wheldall (2007). International Journal of Disability,
Development and Education, 56(1): 5-15.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="2"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 2: Behavourial Momentum</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 2;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ardoin, S. P., Martens, B. K., &
Wolfe, L. A. (1999). Using high-probability instruction sequences with fading
to increase students compliance during transitions. <i>Journal of Applied
Behaviour Analysis, 32, </i>339-351.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Davis, C., & Reichle, J. (1996).
Variant and invariant high-probability requests: Increasing appropriate
behaviours in children with emotional-behavioural disorders. <i>Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analysis, 29, </i>471-482.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Lee, D., Belfiore, P. J., Scheeler, M.
C., Hua, Y., & Smith, R. (2004). Behavioural momentum in academics: Using
embedded high-p sequences to increase academic productivity. <i>Psychology
in the Schools, 41, </i>789-801.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Nevin, J. A. (1996). The momentum of
compliance. <i>Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 29, </i>535-547.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Romano, J. P., & Roll, D. (2000).
Expanding the utility of behavioural momentum for youth with developmental disabilities.<i>Behavioral
Interventions, 15, </i>99-111.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l37 level1 lfo56; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Wehby, J. H., & Hollahan, M.S.
(2000). Effects of high probability requests on the latency to initiate
academic tasks. <i>Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 33, </i>259-262.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><br />
<hr align="center" size="2" width="100%" />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.8pt; mso-outline-level: 3;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4594597540556650323" name="1"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0cm; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; padding: 0cm;">MUSEC
Briefing Issue 1: Multisensory Environments to Reduce Challenging Behaviour in
People with Severe Disabilities</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: 1;"></span><span style="color: #00798e; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt;">
<b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">References:</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo58; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Chan, S., Fung, M. Y., Tong, C. W.,
& Thompson, D. (2005). The clinical effectiveness of a multisensory therapy
on clients with developmental disability. <i>Research in Developmental
Disabilities</i>, 26, 131-142.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo58; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Hogg, J., Cabet, J., Lambe, L., &
Smeddle, M. (2001). The use of 'Snoezelen' as multisensory stimulation with
people with intellectual disabilities: A review of the research. <i>Research
in Developmental Disabilities</i>, 22, 353-372.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo58; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Martin, N. T., Gaffan, E. A., &
Williams, T. (1998). Behavioural effects of long-term multisensory
stimulation. <i>British Journal of Clinical Psychology</i>, 37, 69-82.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo58; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Stephenson, J. (2002). Characterization
of multisensory environments: Why do teachers use them? <i>Journal of
Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities</i>, 15, 73-90.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 15.3pt; margin-left: 11.25pt; mso-list: l22 level1 lfo58; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: black; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Withers, P. S., & Ensum, I (1995).
Successful treatment of severe self injury incorporating the use of DRO, a
Snoezelen room and orientation cues. <i>British Journal of Learning
Disabilities</i>, 23, 164-167.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-12089138650499744492013-11-15T12:17:00.000+11:002013-11-15T12:17:51.499+11:00Rhubarb, rhubarb, rhubarb<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It was one
of those supermarket moments. The young man at the checkout looked at the long
red stalks topped with exuberant green foliage and asked my wife what it was.
My heart went out to him. To have reached your teenage years without knowing
the sensuous delights of rhubarb crumble was almost unbearable – far superior
to the traditional teenage delights of sex ‘n’ drugs ‘n’ rock ‘n’ roll, but
then I am well over sixty and he is, perhaps, sixteen. And perhaps he just did
not recognise rhubarb in its raw state and, in any case, I digress.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>My wife
telling him the name of the product did not seem to help him to locate it on
his checkout touch screen. We waited. In desperation, I hissed “Tell him it’s
r-<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">H</b>-u …”. Problem (finally) solved.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
if I needed any reminding, this served to illustrate yet again the importance
of factors other than decoding (phonically or otherwise) in reading and, indeed,
spelling. To be literate, to be able to read and write (and spell) with
reasonable proficiency, it is not enough to be able to decode or encode words
and text. You actually have to know what you are reading or writing about. You
need knowledge. <o:p></o:p></div>
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This sounds painfully obvious on
the surface: how could it be otherwise? But a sole preoccupation with decoding
and encoding, especially when teaching low-progress readers, can sometimes
distract one from the equally important task of teaching … well, stuff. It is
all very well to be able to read aloud “The rodent consumed the gorgonzola” but,
effectively, barking at print is all that will be achieved unless you know what
a rodent is, what consume means and that gorgonzola is a type of cheese. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The problem is, of course, that
learning quite a bit of this ‘stuff’ actually comes about via reading.
Consequently, if you are poor at reading, you will tend to read far less and to
learn less general knowledge. Moreover, many of the words and terms that we
learn do not crop up frequently in everyday conversation; we <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">only</i> encounter them in books. Hence,
low-progress readers experience what Keith Stanovich calls ‘the Matthew Effect’
whereby the rich get richer and the poor get poorer; those who can read well,
read more and learn more; those who read poorly, read less and hence learn less.<o:p></o:p></div>
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All of this leads to the rather
obvious point that we need to teach ‘stuff’ to low-progress readers as well as
how to decode effectively and efficiently. In recent years, there has been a
noticeable and welcome shift among those interested in teaching reading effectively
to focus on all five of the five ‘big ideas’ of reading instruction; to give
equal prominence to vocabulary and comprehension as to phonemic awareness,
phonics and fluency. We also need to focus on the acquisition of general knowledge
about the world and to find ways of bringing low-progress readers up to speed
with what typically developing readers are already likely to know. To
contemplate a world without rhubarb in it is just too sad.<o:p></o:p></div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-15026758822551780032013-11-15T12:12:00.001+11:002013-11-15T12:12:40.838+11:00Vital Signs in Reading<div class="MsoNormal">
Anyone who has spent time in hospital or has a long term
illness will be well aware of the importance doctors and nurses attach to the
continual monitoring of ‘vital signs’: body temperature, heart rate (or pulse),
and blood pressure (BP). Measurement of these vital signs can also be achieved
very quickly, easily and frequently. What is perhaps not so commonly known is
that these vital signs can be highly variable and subject to considerable
fluctuation as a result of varying circumstances. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Blood pressure measurement, for
example, can fluctuate from one reading to the next and is particularly
susceptible to changes in when and where it is taken and by whom. Sometimes simply
being examined by a medical professional can make our blood pressure go up: the
‘white coat phenomenon’.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>But does
this variability in BP measurement mean that it is useless for diagnostic or
monitoring purposes? The answer is no, of course not; measures do not need to
be totally reliable to be very useful; in detecting hypertension for example. We
can also iron out some of the blips by taking several measures and averaging
them or by taking repeated regular readings and looking at BP levels over time.
Hypertension or high blood pressure is, of course, not an all or nothing affair
since blood pressure is variable across individuals and is on a continuum. The
BP levels we refer to as indicating degrees of hypertension are not magic
markers but are, in a sense, arbitrary cut-offs that have proved in practice over
time to be useful indicators for detecting potential problems.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>By the same
token, there are ‘vital signs’ like BP that are very useful to us when teaching
reading. We can measure reading performance reliably enough for it to be very
useful to us in practice; to help us in determining which of our students need
additional help, for example. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
There is another parallel here
with hypertension. Some people still seem to believe that dyslexia or reading
disability is a clearly differentiated specific condition that is either
present or it is not; all or nothing. But reading performance, like BP, is on a
continuum and where we set the performance bar to indicate a reading disability
is essentially arbitrary. Children vary in the extent to which they display
difficulties in reading. By changing the performance criterion, we can define
reading disability as referring to 5, 10 or 20 per cent of the population, for
example. The decision where to place the bar is a judgement call and is likely
to be influenced not only by student need but also by the resources available.
To take an extreme example, there is little point identifying 50 per cent of
students as being dyslexic if we have resources available to meet the needs of
only 5 per cent. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
important thing to bear in mind, then, is that reading difficulties may be
present to a greater or lesser extent. Many reading researchers and specialists
today would argue that defining dyslexia is a largely futile exercise and that
we should concentrate instead on helping all struggling readers to perform at a
level that can reasonably be considered as being within an acceptable range for
their age. To help us in this endeavour we need good measures of reading performance
that are reasonably reliable (like BP they will not be perfect), that are quick
and easy to administer, and that we can use to screen for reading problems and
to monitor the reading progress of those whose performance is of concern to us
frequently, on a regular basis. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Unfortunately, many of the reading
tests out there are time-consuming to administer and may only be used reliably
at infrequent intervals. Such tests are not very useful to us in monitoring the
reading performance of our students. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
In recent years, reading
researchers have been experimenting with so-called curriculum-based measures of
reading that have been shown to be both remarkably reliable and valid measures
of reading performance while being both quick and easy to administer. This new
approach to reading assessment also allows teachers and others to test students
frequently to monitor progress, by providing numerous different reading
passages that have been shown to be of an equal difficulty level. (One such
reading assessment instrument, the Wheldall Assessment of Reading Passages (or
WARP), has recently been released by MultiLit Pty Ltd: <a href="http://www.multilit.com/">www.multilit.com</a> .) When such an effective
reading assessment tool is available to them, teachers and others can use the
data collected to make instructional decisions so as to tailor their teaching
strategies to meet individual student needs.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Like hospital patients,
low-progress readers must be monitored on a regular basis to ensure that the
interventions being employed are working and that they are making real
improvements. Educators need to be like doctors to their students, monitoring
their vital signs in reading and ensuring that no student is left behind.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<i>[Acknowledgement: I would like to acknowledge the editorial
assistance of my daughter, Rachael Wheldall, with this article.]</i><o:p></o:p></div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-21531099492740996702013-02-04T17:26:00.000+11:002013-02-04T17:26:32.225+11:00Small Bangs for Big Bucks: The long term efficacy of Reading Recovery
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<span lang="EN-US">‘Best Evidence in Brief’ is a
fortnightly email newsletter “brought to you by the Johns Hopkins School of
Education's Center for Research and Reform in Education and the University of
York's Institute for Effective Education”, both led by Bob Slavin. In the
latest issue (January 30, 2013 </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/a9bn66a"><b><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/a9bn66a</span></b></a><span lang="EN-US">), there is an interesting item entitled 'Lasting effects from Reading
Recovery' citing a recent report (dated December, 2012) by Jane Hurry from the
Institute of Education, University of London (the British home of Reading Recovery).
Hurry’s report is entitled ‘The impact of Reading Recovery five years after intervention’
(</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/avhubv9"><b><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/avhubv9</span></b></a><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">).</span></b><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">This is how ‘Best Evidence in Brief ‘ reports the
study (with a link to the report):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 42.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US">“A </span><a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?e=001Mb9PHO-oLRYtH_26Rxf5M0ydpzBbLY5WHvVVC2ggdFoQ2MS_bgU11nRSMs2auXw7qGYa_k8wWoKxxJ22xQK_bWRxnMb8nIw97UTNXK3bmdmFkDWFTcrIMWE_jTW6lMk55S0m67yjR4dGMXh6Z6ahX7APsA1vb6-53BEANDroRlp0RryhYT2epFMrBcy4nhCAjN14mFMO4vA="><span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">recent report</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> for the Every Child a Reader Trust looks at the impact of Reading
Recovery five years after intervention. The program is known to have impressive
effects in the short term, but less is known about its long-term effectiveness.
This study suggests that the substantial gains which result from receiving
Reading Recovery in Year 1 (the UK equivalent of kindergarten) continue to the
end of primary school.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 42.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US">At the end of Year 6 (the UK equivalent of 5th grade),
the study followed up 77 children who had received Reading Recovery five years
earlier, 127 comparison children, and 50 children in Reading Recovery schools
who had not received Reading Recovery. Findings showed that children who had
received Reading Recovery made significantly greater progress in English than
the comparison children by the end of Year 6. The 50 comparison children in the
Reading Recovery schools were also significantly out-performing the comparison
group in non-Reading Recovery schools on the reading test.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">It would be reasonable to conclude from this summary
(published by two research centres apparently devoted to championing
evidence-based practice) that Reading Recovery had already been shown,
unequivocally, to be effective in the short term and that now there was convincing
evidence for its efficacy in the longer term too, at the end of Year 6, in
fact.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Many reading scientists are less
convinced of the Efficacy of Reading Recovery in the short term; see, for
example, Reynolds and Wheldall, 2007: </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/bggyl46"><b><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/bggyl46</span></b></a><b><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But let us
concentrate, for the present purposes, on the reporting of longer term effects
as reported by Hurry and summarised by Best Evidence in Brief. This is how
Hurry, herself, summarises her findings in her report:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 42.15pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
“Reading Recovery is part of the Every Child a Reader strategy to enable
children to make a good start in reading. Reading Recovery is well known to
have impressive effects in the shorter term but less is known about its long
term effectiveness. The present study followed up at the end of Year 6: 127
comparison children, 77 children who had received Reading Recovery five years
earlier and 50 children in Reading Recovery schools who had not receive Reading
Recovery. The children who had received Reading Recovery had made significantly
greater progress in English than the comparison children by the end of Year 6,
achieving on average a National Curriculum Level of 4b compared with a
borderline between Level 3 and 4 in the comparison group. Comparison children
in the Reading Recovery schools were also significantly outperforming the
comparison in non Reading Recovery schools on the reading test. 78% of Reading
Recovery children achieved Level 4 in English compared with 62% in the comparison
group in non Reading Recovery schools and 64% for the comparison children in
Reading Recovery schools. There was a tendency for Reading Recovery children to
be receiving less SEN provision than children in the other two groups, but this
only reached statistical significance for those on School Action Plus or a
Statement. This suggests that the substantial gains which result from receiving
Reading Recovery in Year 1 continue to deliver a significant advantage for
those children at the end of the primary phase, providing a surer footing for
transition to secondary school.” (P. 3)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">If you read the <i>details</i>
in the actual report, however, the facts for the end of Year 6 results are reported
by the author (Hurry) as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 42.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US">“The Reading Recovery children were still doing
significantly better in reading (β=.191, p<.005), effect size (Cohen’s
d) = .39) and writing (β=.162, p<.013, effect size (Cohen’s d) = .33) than the comparison children in non Reading
Recovery schools. They were also scoring significantly higher on
their maths test (β=.154, p<.036, effect size (Cohen’s d) = .31). <b>However, they were not significantly better than the comparison children from
the Reading Recovery schools on any of the measures (reading, writing or
maths). </b>Indeed the comparison
children from Reading Recovery schools, ie. those that were poor readers
at six but did not receive the programme, were also doing significantly
better in reading than the comparison children from non RR schools (β=.222,
p<.002, effect size (Cohen’s d) = .24).” (p.12) (present author’s emphasis)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">So, let’s be clear about this. The children who
received Reading Recovery did not perform significantly better than the
comparison students <i>from the same school</i>
who had <i>not</i> received Reading
Recovery. (Note: no details of statistical significance testing or effect sizes
are reported for these comparisons.) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">But the Conclusions section of the report states (and
this is the only conclusion iterated):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 42.15pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US">“These findings indicate that effects of Reading
Recovery are still apparent at the end of Year 6 and that even the children who
attended Reading Recovery schools but were not offered the programme benefited
somewhat from the ECaR programme.” (P. 22)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">It is a source of some consternation to reflect on the
fact that neither the report’s author (Hurry) nor the writers of ‘Best Evidence
in Brief’ appear to have considered the (to me) obvious alternative conclusion:
that there is no need to actually take part in Reading Recovery; merely
attending a Reading Recovery school appears to be sufficient! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Another interpretation of these data is that they
provide <i>no evidence</i> for the long term
efficacy of Reading Recovery because those children in the school who did
receive Reading Recovery performed no better than those who did not. And <i>both</i> of these groups performed better
than the comparison children in the non-Reading Recovery schools. In other
words, there is no discernable effect for the program per se, only for
differences between schools. Moreover, even the significant differences between
the two groups in the Reading Recovery Schools and the non-Reading Recovery
school are accompanied by only small effect sizes, all of which are below
Hattie’s hinge value of 0.4 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Considering the huge expense involved in one to one
Reading Recovery tutoring, these are very small bangs for very big bucks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-44493396835203896402013-01-18T13:00:00.000+11:002013-01-18T13:34:55.800+11:00PIRLS before Swine: Or why Australia sucks at reading<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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John Lennon was renowned for his
sharp, and oft times acidic, wit. When asked if Ringo was the best drummer in
the world, he responded that Ringo was not even the best drummer in the
Beatles! I was reminded of this when reviewing the latest (2011) results from
the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (or PIRLS). Not only were
Australian students not the best readers in the world, they were not even the
best readers among the English speaking nations surveyed. They were, in fact,
the worst. We can take small comfort from the fact that New Zealand performed
only marginally (and not significantly) better than Australia.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">The PIRLS project essentially assesses
reading comprehension by requiring students to read selected texts and then to
answer questions about the material read. Year 4 students are assessed because
this typically marks the point of transition from learning to read to reading to
learn. (Note that 2011 was the first time that Australia had taken part in
PIRLS.)</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Overall, 45 countries were
included in the study (excluding those countries who tested older or younger
readers or who took part for their own internal benchmarking purposes, and
whose results are not reported). <span lang="EN-US">Australia came 27<sup>th</sup> in
the league table of countries (with a mean score of 527), below all other
English speaking countries and <i>significantly</i>
lower than 21 other countries overall, including all other English speaking
countries except New Zealand (mean score 531). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">To put this in perspective let’s
look at how some of these other English-speaking countries performed.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Singapore (mean score 567), for example, came 4<sup>th</sup>,
one of the four top performing countries significantly above the others.
Northern Ireland came fifth (mean score 558) and </span>the United States <span lang="EN-US">came 6<sup>th</sup> (mean score 556) (compared with 14th out of 40 in
2006).</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">England came 11th (compared with
15th out of 40 in 2006) and Canada (mean score 548) came 12<sup>th</sup>. (Note
the improvements in performance from 2006 to 2011 by both England and the
United States.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">As well as reporting mean scores by
country, PIRLS also provides details of performance against four benchmarks:
Advanced, High, Intermediate, and Low (and those who fail even to qualify for
Low ie Below Low). In Australia 7% of students failed even to meet the Low
benchmark and a further 17% met only the Low benchmark. Here are comparison percentage
figures for other English speaking countries of interest:</span><span style="text-indent: 1cm;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="text-indent: 1cm;"> <b>Below Low Low Combined </b></span><span style="text-indent: 1cm;"> </span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 355px;"><colgroup><col style="mso-width-alt: 4053; mso-width-source: userset; width: 95pt;" width="95"></col><col style="width: 65pt;" width="65"></col><col span="3" style="width: 65pt;" width="65"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;"><td height="15" style="height: 15.0pt; width: 95pt;" width="95"><br /></td><td class="xl63" style="width: 65pt;" width="65"> </td><td class="xl64" style="width: 65pt;" width="65"><br /></td><td class="xl64" style="width: 65pt;" width="65"><br /></td><td class="xl64" style="width: 65pt;" width="65"><br /></td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">Northern Ireland</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">3</td>
<td class="xl64">10</td>
<td class="xl64">13</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">Singapore</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">3</td>
<td class="xl64">10</td>
<td class="xl64">13</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">Canada</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl65">2</td>
<td class="xl64">12</td>
<td class="xl64">14</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">United States</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">2</td>
<td class="xl64">12</td>
<td class="xl64">14</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">England</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">5</td>
<td class="xl64">12</td>
<td class="xl64">17</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">New Zealand</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">8</td>
<td class="xl64">17</td>
<td class="xl64">25</td>
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<td class="xl63" height="15" style="height: 15.0pt;">(Australia)</td>
<td></td>
<td class="xl64">7</td>
<td class="xl64">17</td>
<td class="xl64">24</td>
</tr>
<!--EndFragment-->
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<span lang="EN-US">In summary, Australia and New
Zealand have over twice as many students failing to meet even the minimal Low
standard as Northern Ireland, Singapore, Canada and the United States; and over
one and three quarters times as many low-performing students overall (Below Low
and Low combined). England falls in the middle of these two groups of
countries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">These results may have come as a
shock to many educationists who had been blithely arguing that there
was no literacy crisis in Australia. But they provided simple confirmation for
Australian reading scientists who had been warning of this problem for some
time and had argued (remarkably accurately, as it turns out) that a quarter of
Australia’s students could be regarded as low-progress readers. In 2004, a
group of Australian reading scientists and clinicians wrote an open letter to
the then Federal Minister of Education, Brendan Nelson, arguing the need for
reform regarding the way reading is taught in Australia and the need for
literacy teaching to be based on the available scientific evidence. The
subsequent National Inquiry into the Teaching of Reading reported at the end of
2005, essentially reiterating these concerns and stating clearly what needed to
be done to improve reading standards in Australia. In short, the Report was subsequently
simply ignored.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Moreover, following the implementation
of the National Assessments Program – Literacy and Numeracy (or NAPLAN) from
2008, we were subsequently assured (annually) that all was well on the reading
front. As recently as in 2012, we were reassured that for the performance of
Year 3 students in Reading only 4.4% were in Band 1, having failed to meet the
National Minimum Standard, and only a further 9.4% were in Band 2 ie at the
national Minimum Standard (a combined total of 13.8% of students). (Note that
the NAPLAN measure of reading is similar to the reading comprehension measure
employed by PIRLS.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Clearly, we have been deluding
ourselves by measuring student reading performance against unrealistically low
benchmarks that do not withstand international scrutiny. NAPLAN, as a reading performance
measure, needs to be recalibrated against international standards so that Bands
1 and 2 combined ‘capture’ the bottom performing 25% (not the current 14%) of
students. (These low-progress readers should subsequently be earmarked for
immediate additional instructional support.) Moreover, it should not be beyond
the wit of the NAPLAN methodologists to tie the NAPLAN scale to the metric
employed by PIRLS so that progress towards achieving the international
standards could readily be monitored<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Finally, it is interesting to note
that two English-speaking countries that have begun to take reading instruction
seriously in recent years, and who have urged that reading instruction be based
on the best available scientific evidence, namely the US and England, have both
improved their international standing substantially in the PIRLS league table
from 2006 to 2011. Similarly, the two English-speaking countries that have
performed so poorly, namely Australia and New Zealand, are those that have
clung most tenaciously to the discredited ‘philosophy’ of whole language literacy
instruction. Can this be simple coincidence? I think not.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Reference
note:<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">A summary of Australia’s performance in PIRLS 2011 is
provided in:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Thompson, S., Hillman, K., Wernert,
N., Schmid, M., Buckley, S., & Munene, A. (2012). <i>Highlights from TIMMS & PIRLS 2011from Australia's perspective. </i>Melbourne:
Australian Council for Educational Research.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/TIMSS-PIRLS_Australian-Highlights.pdf">http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/TIMSS-PIRLS_Australian-Highlights.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-76397864518590872832012-10-27T12:53:00.001+11:002012-11-22T19:14:40.032+11:00Neuromyths: ‘A little learning is a dangerous thing’<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-US">A little learning is a dangerous thing;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">(Alexander Pope, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">An Essay on Criticism)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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When I was in my teens (which in my case lasted until I was
at least 30), my father, an otherwise kind and gentle man, used to say to me on
occasion, shaking his head in disbelief: “Kevin, you might be clever in some
things … but you’re bloody thick in others”. (I think it was his use of the
word ‘might’ that really got to me; expressing a degree of doubt.) On mature
reflection, I suspect that he was often, if not always, right.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Of course, anyone who has spent any time on university
committees will know that the most eminent folk, who are certainly ‘clever in some
things’, can be remarkably stupid in others. The almost childlike behaviour of
some academics is quite extraordinary. So it should come as no surprise that some
otherwise smart and accomplished professionals, such as teachers, are capable
of espousing the most curious beliefs. But I get ahead of myself …<o:p></o:p></div>
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Over the past twenty or so years, we have seen extraordinary
developments in brain imaging technology such that we now have a much clearer
and deeper understanding of how the brain works. At the same time, and
notwithstanding this amazing progress, we still have much to learn. Perhaps
even more importantly, we still have much to learn about how to put this new
knowledge about the brain into practical everyday use. This has not stopped,
however, a tidal wave of psychologists, educationists and others from wildly
speculating about new ‘brain-based learning’. (I leave it to the reader to come
up with examples of non-brain-based learning; elbow learning perhaps …?)
Seemingly everywhere one looks, there is news of yet another brain-based
teaching method. (Sometimes old wine is simply rebottled with a brain-based
label.) My Macquarie colleagues Anne Castles and Genevieve McArthur have
recently written an excellent opinion piece on this topic (<a href="http://tinyurl.com/9eqrnoa"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/9eqrnoa</span></a>), featuring the recently much
vaunted Arrowsmith Program, as a prime example. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Alongside this craze for all things brain-based, or ‘neuro’,
a smaller movement has arisen, of desperate evidence-based psychologists and
educators, seeking to temper enthusiasm with reality and to dispel some of the
nonsense spouted by the ‘brainiacs’, also known as ‘neuromyths’. (A less polite
term that you might also encounter online is ‘neurobollocks’.) Like zombies,
however, neuromyths are extremely hardy and merely providing contrary empirical
evidence is rarely sufficient to kill them off. They might pause, briefly, but
then they keep on coming. And they breed …<o:p></o:p></div>
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The extent of this problem is revealed in a recent article by
Dekker, Lee, Howard-Jones and Jolles, published in Frontiers in Psychology (<a href="http://tinyurl.com/8wsjczw"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/8wsjczw</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">)</span> which
reports the results of a survey of 242 teachers conducted in the UK and the
Netherlands. Over 90% expressed interest in ‘scientific knowledge about the
brain’ and 90% were of the view that such knowledge would positively inform
their teaching practice. The teachers responded to an online survey that mixed
a selection of neuromyths with true statements about the brain. In addition to
the collection of background information (about age, sex, level of education
etc), they were also asked about their degree of interest in scientific
knowledge about the brain and its influence on their teaching, any
‘brain-based’ methods they had encountered in their school, and whether they
read popular science magazines or journals, among other questions. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Over 50% of the teachers indicated that they believed in seven of the 15
neuromyths included in the questionnaire. Over 80% expressed belief in the
following: “Individuals learn better when they receive information in
their preferred learning style (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic)”;
“Differences in hemispheric dominance (left brain, right brain) can help
explain individual differences amongst learners”; and “Short bouts of
co-ordination exercises can improve integration of left and right hemispheric
brain function”. Over 80% of the British teachers had encountered Brain Gym (specifically)
and learning styles (generally) (98%) in their schools.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So far, so bad; but it gets worse,
much worse. When the researchers examined the results in more detail, they
found that teachers who actually knew more about the brain tended to believe in
more neuromyths. Yes, that’s right; the <i>more</i>
they knew about the brain, the <i>more</i>
neurobollocks they believed! As the authors put it: <o:p></o:p></div>
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“These findings suggest that
teachers who are enthusiastic about the possible application of neuroscience
findings in the classroom find it difficult to distinguish pseudoscience from
scientific facts. Possessing greater general knowledge about the brain does not
appear to protect teachers from believing in neuromyths.”<o:p></o:p></div>
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A little learning is, indeed, a dangerous thing, as Pope
asserts. Later on, in the same work, he also cautions: ‘Fools rush in where
angels fear to tread’. Quite.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-indent: 1cm;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">Footnote:
My thanks to Max Coltheart for the most apposite quotation from Pope.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-49654675054939403432012-10-16T14:17:00.000+11:002012-10-26T17:47:19.803+11:00Guest post: Tiger by the Tail<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9hhPbm_0BmFRc9gIa70RuPu1yn-TPZG7Hp_c8Zd6gFK8dTyb-bvAhO9giV-nPNRxsrsHKnv-DjAFlmv9LRekXlKZ1vRZaiQIXbTGJwlHo3KNG9oUGIZMzuu48qdv06PtPuVxnDPbjiRF4/s1600/Free_Tigers_Pictures.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9hhPbm_0BmFRc9gIa70RuPu1yn-TPZG7Hp_c8Zd6gFK8dTyb-bvAhO9giV-nPNRxsrsHKnv-DjAFlmv9LRekXlKZ1vRZaiQIXbTGJwlHo3KNG9oUGIZMzuu48qdv06PtPuVxnDPbjiRF4/s320/Free_Tigers_Pictures.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US">The parlous state of ‘Aboriginal education’
was highlighted again with the release of the NSW Auditor General’s report on
the failure to meet the ‘closing the gap’ targets. The report also makes the
point that there are a good many Indigenous students who <i>can</i> read and write as well as their non-Indigenous peers. This is something to be celebrated. But, as
many have said before, the problem is that the ‘tail’ of underachieving students
is very long (and muscular).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Why is lifting the literacy (and numeracy)
level of the majority of Indigenous students such an intractable problem? It is clear that there are instructional
issues stemming from the fact that education systems are not necessarily committed
to mandating that proven approaches to the teaching of reading be used in their
classrooms. Even if they were, the
teacher training institutions do not necessarily turn out teachers who know how
to teach reading effectively. This is a problem for all young Australians and
it seems to be a matter of ‘luck’ whether you will be taught to read
effectively or not in one of the nation’s classrooms. But that is an argument
for another day. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">We consistently read that the poorest
performing students are Indigenous students who live in remote and very remote
areas of our country. Here the likely instructional inadequacies are overlaid
by the myriad problems that are inherent in these ‘hard to staff’ areas. High rates of staff turnover, young and
inexperienced staff, weather events (like cyclone Larry), fresh food shortages,
vast distances to be travelled, road closures, lack of replacement staff, lack
of housing for school staff (and the list goes on), play havoc with delivering
consistent and adequate teaching. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">It does not take long in a remote community
to come to grips with the enormous challenges that exist for anyone with a
vision and passion for redressing this dreadful social ill; that generations of
young Indigenous Australians are being relegated to lives devoid of the
opportunities that are afforded by education. We are presently failing to provide even a
basic education to a sizeable minority of Indigenous students. At times this apparently
intractable problem can seem quite overwhelming.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">There <i>is
</i>a solution to the provision of effective literacy instruction to these
struggling students, however. This comes
in the form of the marriage of two forms of instructional technology. When one
hears this term, most people think of computer hardware and its applications. But
the instructional technology that informs <i>how
and what to teach</i> predates the emergence of the information technology that
most of us now take for granted. This form of ‘instructional technology’ forms
the bedrock of the skills and expertise that special educators bring to the field
of generic basic skills teaching. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Direct, systematic and explicit instruction
that is evidence-based is what these students need to get on the road to
learning success. But how do we put those
who know how to use such effective instructional technology in touch with the
most needy students in remote and very remote areas?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">With the advent of fast broadband
technology (often excellent in these remote areas), and indeed the coming of
the National Broadband Network, we are now able to by-pass all of the staffing
and resourcing issues that have hampered the delivery of even the most basic
schooling for so long. We now have the
means by which a struggling low-progress reader in, say, Aurukun, Coen, or
Baniyala in East Arhem Land, can be taught to read directly, explicitly,
systematically and intensively every day by a trained tutor or a teacher at the
other end of a broadband connection. An
individual program may be delivered in this one-to-one mode thereby meeting the
idiosyncratic needs of each student.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">We have been trialing such an approach in
Multilit and are confident that it can deliver the instruction that these
students most urgently need. The cost of
providing such a service is a grain of sand compared to the desert of costs that
are required to attract, retain and maintain staff in these remote areas. All that is required at each end is a computer,
a camera and a headset (also reducing some of the problems of ‘white noise’ in
a classroom for students with hearing impairment) and a student ready to learn.
Moreover, the integrity and fidelity of the instruction can be assured as
monitoring such instruction from the ‘hub’ is easily done. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">When we first started our work on Cape York
in 2004, a skeptical local educator of some stature said to me, “So….. you’re
going to catch the tiger by the tail, are you ?”. I took it as a challenge. Our subsequent
years of work on the Cape confirmed that we could in fact get students moving
and learning to read using scientific evidence-based methods, such as are
employed in our MultiLit programs. The
logistics around the human element of the exercise was the really challenging
thing – we knew what to teach, and we did it. The students learned. We got the results. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Some seven or so years later, we can now
see a way of delivering effective and intensive instruction to the large
numbers of students who need it. As a society, we will be judged, quite
rightly, by our failures not our successes in the years to come. It is time to
grab this tiger firmly by the tail. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Dr
Robyn Wheldall (Beaman) is an Honorary Fellow of Macquarie University and is a
director of MultiLit Pty Ltd. Email: robyn.wheldall@multilit.com<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[Thanks to http://www.free-predator-pics.com for image.]</span><br />
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-85929423115475634712012-10-14T15:42:00.000+11:002012-10-14T15:51:53.430+11:00Preparing Pre-school Children for Learning to Read<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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If we are serious about ensuring
that all children learn to read within their first few years of schooling, we
should make sure that the basic building blocks of literacy are in place for all
children when they begin formal schooling. The research shows clearly that
children commencing school with both phonological awareness and well-developed
general language skills are far more likely to learn to read easily and
quickly. If all children were to receive a program of instruction in these
essential pre-requisites in the year prior to commencing school, far fewer
children would struggle to learn to read. It would also mean a levelling of the
playing field so that all children, regardless of their family background,
would be starting to learn to read from a more similar knowledge base. It is
currently the case that many children from less advantaged home backgrounds
beginning school are already way behind their more advantaged peers in these key
pre-literacy skills.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The idea of teaching these skills
to pre-school children may sound off-putting to some but there is no reason why
these skills may not be taught effectively in an engaging and play-based way
that is more appropriate for young children. An effective pre-literacy program
for pre-school children should comprise instruction in the two key areas
identified by research as the most important pre-requisite skills for learning
to read. First, they should be engaged in games and play-based routines that
teach systematically the skills of phonological awareness so that children come
to school already able to break up words into their component sounds and to
manipulate the sounds in words. The second key component is an emphasis on
developing good oral language skills more generally, including explicit
vocabulary instruction. The best means of achieving this is by structured
storybook reading activities where children are encouraged to engage with the
story being read, to answer questions about the story and to relate the events
in the story to their own lives. A focus on these two prerequisite skill sets
provides an excellent foundation for learning to read. This conceptualisation
of what constitutes the best preparation for learning to read forms the basis
for our new pre-school program, known as <i>PreLit</i>.
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PreLit is an <i>early literacy preparation program</i>, designed to be delivered the
year before children start formal schooling. It will also prove useful for
teaching children who come to school without the necessary prerequisite skills
in place. The purpose of the program is to lay the foundations for good
phonological awareness and other language skills in young children, to
facilitate literacy development in the early school years. PreLit is particularly focused on improving
the learning outcomes for those children considered at potential risk of
long-term reading failure but will provide a good grounding in the key
prerequisite skills for literacy for all children about to begin school. PreLit
instruction is based on the findings of the accumulated research with this age
group and will provide early childhood teachers with research-based teaching
strategies and an effective model of delivery for the teaching of phonological
awareness and oral language. It is
designed to complement a play-based learning environment through brief periods
of daily instruction. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The Summary Report of the results
for the 2012 NAPLAN (National Assessment Program – Literacy and numeracy) testing
was released today (<a href="http://tinyurl.com/99jrreg"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/99jrreg</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">),<b> </b></span>focussing
on achievement in reading, writing, language conventions (spelling, grammar
and punctuation), and numeracy. In brief, the results appear to show little or
no change from last year and, more surprisingly, little change compared with
2008 when the first NAPLAN testing was carried out (the ‘base NAPLAN year’).</div>
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Because I
am currently particularly interested in literacy learning in the early school
years, I’ll focus mainly on the results for reading in Year 3. I’ll also focus primarily
on the results for New South Wales (NSW) because that is the state in which I
live. The interesting comparison data are reported from page 28. Moreover,
statistical significance testing of differences is also provided, comparing
2008 with 2012 results and also comparing 2011 with 2012. Using the available
information, we can also calculate rough <i>effect sizes</i> (which are not given)
from the information provided. (Note that these can only be approximations
because we do not have access to the raw scores for each child.)When we are
dealing with huge sample sizes, as we are here (close to the whole population,
in fact) even very small, trivial differences can show up as being
statistically significant. But by calculating the <i>effect size</i>, we can gain an
indication of whether the differences are worth bothering about or not.<o:p></o:p></div>
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If we look,
for example, at the achievement scores for reading for Year 3 in NSW for 2008
and 2012, the mean (average) score rose from 412.3 to 425.7, an increase of
13.4 points, a difference which was statistically significant. The rough effect size,
however, was about 0.17 at best, which is very small; so small, in fact, that
it is regarded as barely having an effect at all. Researchers tend to regard an
effect size of 0.2 as being the lowest value to count even as ‘small’. To put
this in perspective, John Hattie, in his book Visible Learning, argues that an
effect size of 0.4 is what he calls the 'hinge' value, meaning that this is the
point at which interventions become worthwhile.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The results
Australia wide for Year 3 reading were similar with an effect size of about
0.22. Queensland recorded the biggest improvement with an effect size of about
0.44, above Hattie’s ‘hinge’ and well worth the effort. In this case the effort
is likely to have been the additional prep/kindy year of schooling introduced by Queensland in 2008. 2011 was the first
year that Queensland children in Year 3 were in their fourth year of schooling,
when they took the test, as Year 3 children are in the other states. (The difference
between 2011 and 2012 results, although significant, is negligible with an
effect size of 0.1, confirming that the big increase was between the years 2008
and 2011.) <o:p></o:p></div>
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The results
for reading in Year 5 show very little change occurring over the years.
Although some differences are statistically significant, the rough effect sizes
are very small.<o:p></o:p></div>
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So what
does this tell us in broad terms? It tells us that generally there has been no
major improvement in reading performance over the years 2008 to 2012 for
children in Years 3 and 5. There is one important proviso, however, and that is the assumption that the annual tests are truly comparable year to year, as we are assured is
the case. If they were found to be not truly comparable, we could draw no
conclusions at all.<o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-10718784053289833942012-08-22T23:45:00.000+10:002015-05-23T12:22:37.717+10:00What's Wrong with What Works?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Sexual intercourse began<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">In nineteen sixty-three<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">(which was rather late for me) -<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Between the end of the <i>Chatterley</i>
ban<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">And the Beatles’ first LP.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 4.0cm; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">(from Annus Mirabilis by Philip Larkin)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Evidence-based practice has become
all but a cliché in educational discourse. Perhaps finally tiring of talking
about ‘learnings’, ‘privileging’ and verbing any other noun they can get their
hands on, educationists have decided to "sing from the same songsheet” of
evidence-based practice. That’s got to be a good thing, right? Well, yes, it
would be if they were singing the same tune and the same words. Unfortunately,
evidence-based practice means different things to different people. This is why
I personally prefer the term scientific evidence-based practice. But how are we
to know what constitutes (scientific) evidence-based practice?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
The Education Minister for New
South Wales has recently (August 2012) launched the Centre for Education
Statistics and Evaluation which “undertakes i<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">n depth analysis of education
programs and outcomes across early childhood, school, training and higher
education to inform whole-of-government, evidence based decision making.” (See </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/d53f2y2"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/d53f2y2</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> and </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/c6uh3y4"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/c6uh3y4</span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">).</span></span><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Moreover, we are told,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 35.45pt; margin-right: -3.2pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">“</span>The Centre turns data into knowledge, providing
information about the effectiveness of different programs and strategies in
different contexts – put simply, it seeks to find out what works”. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt;">
Ah, ‘what works’, that rings a bell. It is too
early to tell whether this new centre will deliver on its promises but what
about the original ‘What Works Clearinghouse’ (WWC), the US based repository of
reports on educational program efficacy that originally promised so much? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -3.2pt; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
As Daniel Willingham
has pointed out: <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
“<span style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">The U.S. Department of Education
has, in the past, tried to bring some scientific rigor to teaching. The What
Works Clearinghouse, created in 2002 by the DOE's Institute of Education
Sciences, evaluates classroom curricula, programs and materials, but its standards
of evidence are overly stringent, and teachers play no role in the vetting
process.” (See </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/bn8mvdt"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/bn8mvdt</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">My colleagues and I have also been critical of
WWC. And not just for being too stringent. Far from being too rigorous, the WWC
boffins frequently make, to us, egregious mistakes; mistakes that, far too
often for comfort, seem to support a particular approach to teaching and
learning. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">I first
became a little wary of WWC when I found that our own truly experimental study
on the efficacy of Reading Recovery (RR) had been omitted from their analyses
underlying their report on RR. Too bad, you might think, that’s just sour
grapes. But, according to Google Scholar, the article has been cited 160 times
since publication in 1995 and was described by eminent American reading
researchers Shanahan and Barr as one of the “more sophisticated studies”.
Interestingly enough, it is frequently cited by <i>proponents </i>of RR (we did find it to be effective) as well as by its
<i>critics </i>(but effective only for one
in three children who received it). So why was it not included by WWC? It was <i>considered</i> for inclusion but was
rejected on the following grounds:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-US">“Incomparable groups: this study was a quasi-experimental
design that used achievement pre-tests but it did not establish that the
comparison group was comparable to the treatment group prior to the start of
the intervention.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">You can read the details of why this is just
plain wrong, as well as other criticisms of WWC, in Carter and Wheldall (2008)
(</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/c6jcknl"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/c6jcknl</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">). Suffice to say that participants were randomly allocated to treatment
groups and that we did establish that the control group (as well as the
comparison group) was comparable to the (experimental) treatment group who
received RR prior to the start of the intervention. This example also
highlights another problem with WWC’s approach. Because they are supposedly so
‘rigorous’, they discard the vast majority of studies from the research
literature on any given topic as not meeting their criteria for inclusion or
‘evidence standards’. In the case of RR, 78 studies of RR were considered and
all but five were excluded from further consideration. Our many other criticisms
of what we regard as a seriously flawed WWC evaluation report on RR are
detailed in Reynolds, Wheldall, and Madelaine (2009) (</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/cuj8sqm"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/cuj8sqm</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">).<b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Advocates
of Direct Instruction (DI) seem to have been particularly ill-served by the
methodological ‘rigour’ of WWC, for not only are most more recent studies of the
efficacy of DI programs excluded because they do not meet the WWC evidence
standards but they also impose a blanket ban on including any study (regardless
of technical adequacy) </span><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">published before 1985; an interesting if
somewhat idiosyncratic approach to science. Philip Larkin told us that sex only
began in 1963 but who would have thought that there was no educational research
worth considering before 1985? (Insert
your own favourite examples here of important scientific research in other
areas that would fall foul of this criterion. Relativity anyone? Gravity?) Zig
Engelmann, the godfather of DI, has written scathingly about the practices of
WWC </span><span style="color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">(</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/c5pjm9d"><span style="background: white; color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/c5pjm9d</span></a><span style="background: white; color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">and </span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/85t2vpt"><span style="background: white; color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/85t2vpt</span></a><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">), concluding:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">“</span>I consider WWC a very dangerous organization. It is
not fulfilling its role of providing the field with honest information about
what works, but rather seems bent on finding evidence for programs it would
like to believe are effective (like <i>Reading Recovery </i>and <i>Everyday
Mathematics</i>).” <span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Engelmann
can be forgiven for having his doubts given that for the 2008 WWC evaluation
report on the DI program Reading Mastery (RM) (<a href="http://tinyurl.com/d8kawf7"><span style="background: white; color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/d8kawf7</span></a><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">), </span>WWC could not find <i>a single study</i> that met their evidence standards out of the 61
studies they were able to retrieve. (Engelmann claims that there were over 90
such studies, mostly peer reviewed.)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
The most recent WWC report on RM in 2012 (<a href="http://tinyurl.com/7bdobxv"><span style="background: white; color: blue; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/7bdobxv</span></a><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">)</span>, specifically concerned with its efficacy for
students with learning disabilities, determined that only two of the 17 studies
it identified as relevant met evidence standards and concluded:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<i><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">“Reading Mastery</span></i><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> was found to have no discernible
effects on reading comprehension and potentially negative
effects on alphabetics, reading fluency, and writing for students with
learning disabilities.”</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">In response to this judgement, the Institute
for Direct Instruction pointed out, not unreasonably, that, of the two studies
considered:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">“One actually showed that students studying with RM
had significantly greater gains than students in national and state norming
populations. Because the gains were equal to students in Horizons (another DI
program), the WWC concluded that RM had no effect. The other study involved
giving an extra 45 minutes of phonics related instruction to students studying
RM. The WWC interpreted the better results of the students with the extra time
as indicating potentially negative effects of RM.” <o:p></o:p></span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: right;">(</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/9oewdlo" style="text-align: right;"><span style="background-color: white;">http://tinyurl.com/</span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">9oewdlo</span></a><span style="background-color: white; text-align: right;">)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> In other words when
Reading Mastery was compared with another very similar DI program (in each
case), and the results were no different from or slightly better than the
standard Reading Mastery program, it was concluded that Reading Mastery was
therefore ineffective for students with learning disabilities and possibly even
detrimental to their progress. It is conclusions such as these that have led
some experts in the field to wonder whether this is the result of incompetence
or bias: cock up or conspiracy.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">If we needed any further
proof of the unreliability of WWC reports, we now have their August 2012 report
on whether </span><span lang="EN-US">Open Court Reading<sup>©</sup>
improves adolescent literacy (</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/9nzv5wj"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/9nzv5wj</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">)</span><span lang="EN-US">. True to form, they
discarded 57 out of 58 studies as not meeting evidence standards. On the basis
of this one study they concluded that Open Court “was found to have potentially
positive effects on comprehension for adolescent readers”. There are at least
three problems with this conclusion. First, this is a bold claim based on the
results for just one study, the large sample size and their ‘potentially
positive’ caveat notwithstanding. Second, the effect size was trivial at 0.16,
not even ‘small’, and well below WWC’s own usual threshold of 0.25. Third, and
most important of all, this study was not even carried out with adolescents!
The study sample comprised “more than 900 first-grade though fifth-grade who
attended five schools across the United States”. As Private Eye magazine would
have it “shorely shome mishtake” …<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">There is, then, good reason for serious concern
regarding the reliability of the judgments offered by WWC. The egregious errors
noted above apart, there is the more pressing problem that truly experimental
trials are still relatively rare in educational research and those that have
been carried out may often be methodologically flawed. In its early years, What
Works was renamed ‘Nothing Works’ by some because there was little or no
acceptable evidence available on many programs. Clearly, teachers cannot just
stop using almost all programs and interventions until there are sufficient
RCTs testifying to their efficacy to warrant adopting them. Hattie, for
example, in his seminal 2009 work ‘Visible Learning’ has synthesized over 800
meta-analyses relating to achievement in order to be able to offer
evidence-based advice to teachers (</span><a href="http://tinyurl.com/3h9jssl"><span style="background: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">http://tinyurl.com/3h9jssl</span></a><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">)</span><span lang="EN-US">. (Very few of the studies
on which the meta-analyses were based were randomized control trials, however,
as Hattie makes clear.)</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Until we have a large evidence base of
methodologically sound randomized control trials on a wide variety of
educational programs, methods and procedures, we need a more sophisticated and
pragmatic analysis of the evidence we currently have available. It is not a
question of accepting any evidence in the absence of good evidence, but rather of
assessing the existing research findings and carefully explaining the
limitations and caveats.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">As I have attempted to show, the spurious rigour of
WWC whereby the vast majority of studies on any topic are simply discarded as
being too old or too weak methodologically, coupled with their unfortunate
habit of making alarming mistakes, makes it hard to trust their judgments. If
the suggestions of bias regarding their pedagogical preferences have any
substance, we have even more cause for concern. As it stands, What Works simply
won’t wash.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<b style="text-indent: 35.45pt;"><br /></b>
<b style="text-indent: 35.45pt;">Postscript November 15, 2013</b><span style="text-indent: 35.45pt;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Further to my original blog post ‘What’s wrong with
What Works?’, WWC have released new reports on reading interventions that
confirm that at WWC it is business as usual. My colleague, Mark Carter, alerted
me to problems associated with the WWC evaluation (March 2013) of the efficacy
of FastForWord® (FFW):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 39.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">“I just can't
believe WWC. They found "positive" effects of FFW for alphabetics but
the ES was 0.15 – trivial, below their own 0.25 (low) standard for educational
significance and moving the average child a whole 6 percentile ranks. They got
exactly the same results for fluency and comprehension and reached different
conclusions for each. Three identical effect sizes - three different
conclusions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 39.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">They say in the text
that the effects are below 0.25 and are "indeterminate" but then give
it a positive rating. They seem to be vote counting the number of significant
outcomes in a given area. This is conceptually antithetical to the whole idea
of meta-analysis. The problem with examining significance is that it is
substantially a function of sample size - that is why we use effect sizes to
aggregate findings across studies. And, to boot, they are ignoring their own
criteria for educational significance. I really can't believe it.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: 39.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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It is also worth noting that WWC
based their efficacy evaluation on just nine studies out of the 342 studies
they originally identified that looked at the efficacy of FFW on early reading
skills; seven studies that met their evidence standards without reservations
and two studies that met their standards with reservations.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<!--EndFragment-->Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-41306134296803457252012-07-29T16:24:00.000+10:002012-07-29T16:28:53.650+10:00Taking care of Matthew<br />
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Some 25
years ago now, Keith Stanovich popularised the concept of Matthew effects in
reading. The Matthew Effect takes its name from a passage in the St Matthew
Gospel:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.0cm; margin-right: -17.35pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
“For unto every one that hath
shall be given, and he shall have abundance: but from him that hath not shall
be taken away even that which he hath” (Matthew 25:29)<o:p></o:p></div>
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Often translated as “the rich
get richer and the poor get poorer”, this neat analogy clearly struck a chord
with reading specialists. Because if you start off by learning to read well,
you will indeed get richer and richer; certainly metaphorically, but probably
quite literally too. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
You will
read far more than your less fortunate peers, you will have greater exposure to
a wider variety of books, you will learn far more new vocabulary words, you
will pass from learning to read to reading to learn much more quickly, and so
on. If, on the other hand, you come to school ill-prepared for learning to
read, with poor language skills as a result of social disadvantage for example,
and you do not latch on to what reading is all about quickly, in that first
year of schooling, you are likely to experience continuing failure throughout
your educational trajectory. Because literacy underpins everything. In other
words the gap between the reading haves and the reading have nots, the literacy
rich and the literacy poor, widens over the years creating social division and
perpetuating social disadvantage from one generation to the next. Teaching
children to read, then, is not just an educational issue; it is a social
justice issue.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
And it is
this concern with social justice that has motivated our work in MultiLit from
the outset. Our aim has always been to help those who struggle to learn to read
for whatever reason, but particularly those students from socially
disadvantaged, culturally diverse and Indigenous backgrounds, as well as those
with other special learning needs. Our non-categorical approach to teaching asserts
that what all of these children need is effective scientific evidence-based
instruction.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
It is a
source of continuing bewilderment to me, that so many professionals in
education continue to resist the idea of direct, explicit and systematic
instruction in phonics, while at the same time shedding crocodile tears about
the plight of the disadvantaged children struggling in our schools. But they
are often the cause of the problem. To use a medical term, the problem is
iatrogenic; it is the ‘treatment’ the students are receiving, or rather the
lack of effective instruction in schools, that is often the cause of the
reading problem. Low-progress readers are frequently simply ‘instructional
casualties’. <o:p></o:p></div>
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It is a
concern with helping all children to learn to read, regardless of the apparent
reason for their difficulties, that has been the driving force behind our work.
This is why we launched the Making Up Lost Time In Literacy or MultiLit
Initiative in 1995. We were initially concerned with trying to help older
low-progress readers in the final years of primary school so that they could
stand some chance of making a success of high school. The MultiLit Reading
Tutor Program was our solution, a one to one program of direct, explicit and
systematic instruction in the basics of reading comprising a focus on teaching
word attack skills, teaching a bank of frequently occurring sightwords and
providing a supportive context for book reading in which to generalise these
newly acquired skills.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
We worked
with older low-progress readers because this is what we knew; this is what we
had been researching for a number of years. But we were always aware that we
were the ambulance picking up the instructional casualties while also lobbying
for more effective initial reading instruction in schools. As we often said,
our aim was to make ourselves redundant! We naively thought that the effort we
put into pressing for the National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy might
bring this about. But we all know what happened as a result of the Inquiry … very
little indeed.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Whatever the
case with initial reading instruction, and even if scientific evidence-based
teaching of reading were to be introduced, there will always be a minority of
children who will struggle to learn to read. We currently estimate that we
should target the bottom 25% of students as being in need of additional
remedial support. Consequently, it makes good sense to intervene early with
children who are struggling to learn to read in their first year of schooling,
before the Matthew effect becomes entrenched. Whatever reservations one might
have about aspects of Reading Recovery (and we have certainly not been bashful
about expressing our own reservations), the late Dame Professor Marie Clay
deserves enduring credit for her pioneering work on the importance of
intervening early with children who are seen still to be struggling in the key
skills of learning to read after their first year of schooling. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
While we can
admire Marie Clay’s pioneering work, it has to be remembered that Reading
Recovery has remained virtually unchanged in over thirty years now. An awful lot
has happened in that time. We now know far more about how reading works and how
it should best be taught. But we always thought that someone else would come up
with an alternative program that would ideally be at least as effective but
more cost effective than Reading Recovery, predicated as it is on daily one to
one tutoring by a highly trained Reading Recovery Teacher. We waited but
nothing happened and so, over five years ago now, we started to think about how
MultiLit might be adapted to meet the needs of this much younger target group. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">The MiniLit Early Literacy Intervention Program is the product of an
ongoing program of research and development carried out by our specialist team
of academic researchers and special educators. </span>A continuing process of
refinement by trial and revision was employed until the program met the
stringent efficacy criteria to justify its release to the wider community. We
do not just write and hope! This final published version of MiniLit entailed a
major revision of previous experimental versions and represents what we believe
to be scientific evidence-based best practice.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
MiniLit is
informed by the findings of scientific research, carried out over the past 40
years, into how reading works and how it may best be taught. It is also completely
in accord with the recommendations of the various national reports into
effective reading instruction that have emphasised the five key pillars of
reading instruction (sometimes known as the ‘five big ideas’), namely: phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">It consists of 80 carefully structured lessons (sufficient for at least
two terms of instruction) in an easy to hard sequence and is divided into two
levels, Levels 1 and 2, with 40 lessons at each level. There are three main
components of each lesson: Sounds and Words Activities; Text Reading; and Story
Book Reading. It is very important that <i>all
three</i> of these components are taught daily, as specified in the manual.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -17.35pt; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
But does it
work? A recent analysis of the progress of 90 struggling young readers who had
attended MiniLit programs for four days per week for 15 weeks showed that they
had made substantial and statistically significant gains on all of the measures
of reading and related skills with large effect sizes evident. ‘Gold Standard‘ randomised control trials
have also been completed supporting the efficacy of the new MiniLit program.<o:p></o:p></div>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-13630070017869003642012-07-29T16:15:00.000+10:002012-08-03T10:17:08.810+10:00Who's for coffee?<span style="background-color: white;">Several years ago now, my wife,
Robyn, and I found to our amazement that we had actually won something in a
prize draw. Apparently our name had been pulled out of the hat at the local vet
clinic and we had won a brand new, all singing, all dancing, espresso coffee
machine. (Considering the vast amount of money we had invested over the years with
the vet to keep our dogs in tip top health, it was not a huge return, but
decidedly better than nothing at all.)</span><br />
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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With mean-spirited glee, and to the angst of our trendy
kids then still living at home, we decided to take it away with us to our
weekender in the country (‘Harefield’), so that the ‘young adults’ would not
wreck it while we were away.<o:p></o:p></div>
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It sat on the kitchen bench, still in its box, for
several country weekends before I finally decided that I really did have to
learn how to drive the thing. To this old fogie, it looked more like something
that belonged in a science lab, or in Dr Who’s Tardis, than in a kitchen.<o:p></o:p></div>
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I
examined each part carefully and gratefully located the instructions booklet.
This is when the trouble started… I read
the instruction booklet thoroughly. Then I read it again. I was still none the
wiser. As a literate adult, I could read and understand every word in the
booklet but I still had no idea what to do with the coffee machine. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The booklet continually referred to ‘the coffee maker’
that, not unreasonably, I took to mean the gadget, the espresso machine. It was
only on the third reading that the light went on and it dawned on me that it
meant me. I was the coffee maker!<o:p></o:p></div>
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Now what lessons can we draw from this little tale of
domestic confusion, other than that it is never safe to trust a baby boomer
with a Generation Y affectation …?<o:p></o:p></div>
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First, we can reflect on the simple model of reading that
posits that reading comprehension is the product of reading accuracy and
listening comprehension. It is no use being able to read the words if you do
not know what they mean. I thought I knew what was meant by coffee maker in
this context but I was wrong. Hence, I could read the booklet but I could not
understand what I had read.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Second, what I really needed was tutoring in coffee
making from a barista or at least someone who was more accomplished in the dark
arts of coffee preparation than I am. And this sort of tutoring is, of course,
one of the things that low-progress readers need to achieve success: effective
tutoring by a more accomplished reader.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Third, I should have stuck with the coffee plunger that
works really well for me. (Incidentally, my wife bought about ten coffee
plungers on sale, for next to nothing, but we could not give them away to our
sophisticated kids!) Now the analogy is not perfect because I like good espresso
coffee as much as the next poseur but new and modern, let alone cool and
trendy, is not necessarily a good thing. And so it is with reading instruction.
<o:p></o:p></div>
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We have learned to our cost that cool and trendy Whole
Language teaching made for far too many low-progress readers. We once knew how
to teach reading; we did it quite well and most kids learned how to read
reasonably quickly. And then we wilfully adopted an unproven method that proved
to be not nearly as effective, but we carried on using it regardless. And we
called it progressive education! As my kids would say: “how weird is that?”<o:p></o:p></div>
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Fourth, it wasn’t my fault! The espresso machine booklet
was a lousy instructor: it did not operationally define its terms and present
the information in a logical order. Nor did my pathetic attempts at discovery
learning serve me any better. I was completely unable to construct my own
personal approach to coffee making with this machine. <o:p></o:p></div>
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With basic skills, like coffee making and reading, we all
need initial direct instruction in the early stages. I can construct my own
version of a decaf triple shot macchiatto later, in the same way that I’ll
subsequently be able to detect the inherent, privileged phallocentic hegemonies
in the books I read. But I do actually need to learn how to read first.<o:p></o:p></div>
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I could go on … I’m on a roll here with the lessons to be
learned about reading from my attempts to make espresso coffee. Suffice to say
that the espresso machine languished in a kitchen cupboard for quite a time while
I continued to use the plunger. Some years later I finally learned how to use
it. Now, who’s for coffee …?<o:p></o:p></div>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-21847697157984137612012-07-29T12:17:00.001+10:002016-01-25T12:35:36.574+11:00How do we ensure that all children learn to read?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b> </b>If all children are
to learn to read to a good level of proficiency in the first few years of
schooling, we need a clear plan to ensure that no child falls through the net.
Such a plan must be both effective and cost-effective. It has become
increasingly accepted in recent years that a three tier, phased model of
reading instruction, known as <i>Response to
Intervention (or RtI),</i> is the best means of achieving this. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The three tier RtI model is predicated upon a first tier
of exemplary initial instruction in reading for all students during their first
year of schooling (Kindergarten in New South Wales). This first tier of
instruction should essentially comprise the best scientific evidence-based
instruction. To the layman, this sounds obvious but in many Australian schools
a less effective <i>implicit </i>model of
reading instruction has held sway for the last few decades. Much of this
implicit approach to reading instruction is highly desirable as a bedrock upon
which to build effective reading instruction, and it may be enough for a
minority of children, but most will need <i>direct,
explicit and systematic instruction</i> in the five pillars or ‘five big ideas’
of teaching reading : phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and
comprehension. What is often lacking in initial reading instruction, in
particular, is effective, specific instruction in what is known as <i>synthetic phonics</i>; how to relate letters
to sounds and to blend letter sounds into words. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Even when afforded exemplary reading instruction, there
will always be some children who take longer than others to catch on. It is
important to identify these low-progress readers as early as possible so that
they do not fall too far behind their peers as their difficulties compound.
Children who do not learn to read in the first few years of schooling are
typically destined to a school career of educational failure because reading
underpins almost all subsequent learning. A safe strategy is to target students
who fall into the bottom twenty five per cent of the population for remedial
reading intervention, as soon as their difficulties become apparent. Students’
progress should be checked regularly, in order to provide remedial intervention
for those who need it from the beginning of Year One, at the very latest. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -10.25pt;">
The RtI model recommends that struggling readers, the
low-progress readers who comprise the bottom quartile, should be offered more intensive
Tier 2 intervention in <i>small groups</i>
of three to four students. Again the instruction provided to these students should
be based on what the scientific research evidence has shown to be most
effective— essentially the same five big ideas of reading instruction but more
intensive and more individualised. In small groups, teachers are able to be
more responsive to the specific idiosyncratic needs of the students<span style="font-family: "cambria"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span>with
whom they are working. Small group instruction can be just as effective as
one-to-one instruction for children without severe reading difficulties.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -10.25pt;">
<i> </i>Even with a solid
Tier 2 small group reading program in place, there will still be a very small
number of students who ‘fail to thrive’, perhaps about 3-5% of all Year 1
students. These are the students for whom we should reserve Tier 3 <i>one-to-one intensive</i> reading
instruction, preferably with a specialist reading teacher with a sound
background in special education. The same five big ideas are still critical.
What is different, of course, is the intensity of instruction. Having
successfully taught the vast majority of Year 1 students the basics of learning
to read by Tier 1 and, where necessary, Tier 2 small group teaching, it is a far
more manageable proposition to provide these few remaining students with the individual
reading support that they will need, for as long as they need it. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -10.25pt;">
With this three tier Response to Intervention model in
place, predicated upon scientific evidence based reading instruction, almost
all, if not all, children will become proficient readers. Of course, the RtI
model does not stop at the end of Year 1, it is important to monitor reading
progress closely for all students, especially for the first three years of
schooling. But by employing these procedures rigorously and teaching
scientifically, it is not too much to expect all of our children to learn to
read.<o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Note: A longer version of this post is available at:<a href="http://tinyurl.com/7cr8ddo" target="_blank"> <b style="background-color: white; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">http://tinyurl.com/7cr8ddo</b></a><br />
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><br /></b></div>
Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-28715860557995652772012-06-10T14:52:00.000+10:002012-07-29T16:02:18.419+10:00What's wrong with me?<span style="background-color: white;"> When I
suggested to my daughter that I might write an
article entitled ‘what’s wrong with me?’, there was the instant retort: “An
article? I would have thought a whole book!” Oh ha ha ha – such a cruel and
ready wit in one so young… I refer, of course, to the demise of the simple word
‘me’ in popular usage.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
It seems as
if many writers and, particularly, speakers will go to almost any lengths to
avoid uttering the simple little M word. It stems, I suspect, from our mothers
and others continually correcting us as small children when we said such things
as “Me and Jim are going to the footy.” (”No darling, you mean James and I are
going to watch the football game.” “Oh, are you coming too then Mum?” and so on
…) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This was
then compounded by the demise of formal instruction in English grammar in
schools, over several decades now. As a consequence, while many are left with
the sure and certain knowledge that the use of me sometimes leads to ‘bad’
English, they have no idea as to when and when not to use it. Far better, then,
to try to avoid using it as much as possible, just to be on the safe side … to
avoid sounding 'common'.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As a
result, we frequently hear things like “Would you like to join Jim and I for dinner?” from otherwise apparently literate individuals who would never
dream of saying “Would you like to join
I for dinner?” (“Yes, me would!”, one might be tempted to reply.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Far, far
worse, however, is the seemingly ubiquitous overuse of ‘myself’, an otherwise
inoffensive little reflexive or emphatic pronoun with ideas above its station.
And so we hear people say things like “They made myself and my wife very
welcome”, when they mean “my wife and me”. Similarly, we might hear “It has
been decided that Hector and myself should represent the university” (“Hector
and I”). And yet we would rarely hear anyone say “It has been decided that
myself should represent etc ...”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I know; I
know what you are going to say: “But English is a living language that is
continually evolving.” And so it is and is continually enriched as a result.
But we must take care not to allow our liberal and tolerant sensibilities
towards linguistic divergence to perpetuate infelicities that stem from fear
and ignorance. It is not hard to teach students that ‘I’ is the subject and
‘me’ the object in a sentence. Why then do we not do so? Could it conceivably
be because some teachers struggle with this distinction themselves? Or is
myself being uncharitable?</div>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-76351316011774027222012-06-03T16:57:00.000+10:002012-07-29T16:03:08.015+10:00About MiniLit<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: green; font-size: 14pt;">The MiniLit Early Literacy Intervention Program<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">What is MiniLit?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
MiniLit stands for ‘Meeting
Initial Needs In Literacy’ and is an early literacy intervention program. It is
designed to be delivered daily, for one hour, to small groups of up to four Year
1 students who have struggled to make adequate progress in learning to read
during their first year of schooling.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">Who developed MiniLit?</span></b><span style="color: green;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">MiniLit is the product of an ongoing
program of research and development carried out by a specialist team of academic
researchers and special educators, led by Professor Kevin Wheldall from
Macquarie University.</span> It has been under development for over five years.
A continuing process of refinement by trial and revision was employed until the
program met the stringent efficacy criteria to justify its release to the wider
community. The published version of MiniLit entailed a major revision of previous
experimental versions and represents scientific evidence-based best practice.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">What is MiniLit based on?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
MiniL it is informed by the
findings of scientific research, carried out over the past 40 years, into how
reading works and how it may best be taught. It is also in accord with the
recommendations of national reports into effective reading instruction that
have emphasised the five key pillars of reading instruction (sometimes known as
the ‘five big ideas’), namely: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary
and comprehension. The relevant research and the findings of the national
inquiries are reviewed in the following two refereed journal articles:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 411.1pt; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K., &
Madelaine, A. (2010). </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Components of
effective early reading interventions for young struggling readers. <i>Australian
Journal of Learning Difficulties, </i></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">19,</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 35-</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">57</span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0cm; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K., &
Madelaine, A. (2011).What recent reviews tell us about the efficacy of reading
interventions for struggling readers in the early years of schooling. <i>International Journal of Disability,
Development and Education, 58, </i>257-286<i>.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 28.9pt; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
MiniLit is
predicated on ten desiderata drawn from these sources:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>Intervention is timely and offered during the
second year of formal schooling, as soon as it is identified that the student
has ongoing difficulties that cannot be addressed by the regular classroom
instruction. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>Instruction is delivered in small groups of up
to four students.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>The program includes phonemic awareness,
phonics, fluency, vocabulary and text comprehension. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>The main activities in phonemic awareness relate
to learning to blend and segment and should ideally involve using letters once
students are familiar with some letter-sound relationships.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>Phonics is taught through a synthetic approach.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>There are planned procedures for students to
build automaticity in word recognition.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>Instruction is explicit and systematic.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
8.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>A well-trained teacher or a paraprofessional
with teacher support delivers instruction.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
9.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span>Sessions are frequent, preferably daily, and
involve at least 20-30 minutes of intensive instruction. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
10.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Assessment
procedures and tools are available to identify struggling students and to
monitor their progress.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">What does MiniLit consist of?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">MiniLit consists of 80 carefully
structured lessons (sufficient for at least two terms of instruction) in an
easy to hard sequence and is divided into two levels, Levels 1 and 2, with 40
lessons at each level. There are three main components of each lesson, all of
which should be carried out on each occasion that a MiniLit lesson is taught.
These<span style="color: green;"> </span>three main components are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 60.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Sounds and Words Activities<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 60.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Text Reading, and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 60.55pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Story Book Reading<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">It is very important that <i>all</i> of these components are taught daily, as specified in the
manual for the program:</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">MultiLit.
(2011). <i>MiniLit early literacy
intervention program.</i> Sydney: MultiLit Pty Ltd.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">How are struggling students identified for participation in
Minilit and how is their progress monitored?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Ideally, young struggling readers
should be identified at the commencement of the second year of formal
schooling. Preliminary benchmarks for early identification have been
established on several literacy measures and are reported in:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2011).
</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Early identification of young
struggling readers: Preliminary benchmarks for intervention for students in
years one and two in schools in New South Wales. </span><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Australian Journal of
Learning Difficulties, 20, </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">(in press)<i>.</i></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A weekly curriculum-based measure of early reading progress
has also been developed to monitor the progress of struggling readers, reported
in:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 411.1pt; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K. &
Madelaine, A. (2009). </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Building the WARL: The development of the Wheldall
Assessment of Reading Lists, a curriculum-based measure designed to identify
young struggling readers and monitor their progress. <i>Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties</i>, <i>14</i>, 89-111.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: green;">What is the evidence for the efficacy of MiniLit?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 1.0cm;">
Successive iterations of the
MiniLit program have been continually revised following efficacy trials. Reports
of the early development trials of MiniLit are reported in the following
journal articles:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 411.1pt; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M.,
Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2007). </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Developing
a ramp to reading for at-risk year one students: A preliminary pilot study. <i>Special Education Perspectives, 16, </i>39-69.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoHeading7" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: left; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K, &
Madelaine, A. (2007). ‘Meeting Initial Needs In Literacy’ (MINILIT): Why we
need it, how it works and the results of pilot studies. </span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;">Australian Journal of Special Education,
31</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;">, 147-158.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 2.0cm; margin-right: 11.0pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 411.1pt; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M.,
Wheldall, K, & Madelaine, A. (2007). ‘Meeting Initial Needs In Literacy’
(MINILIT): A ramp to MULTILIT for younger low-progress readers. <i>Australian Journal of Learning
Disabilities,12, </i>67-72.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A recent analysis of the progress of 90 struggling young
readers who had attended MiniLit programs for four days per week for 15 weeks
showed that they had made substantial and statistically significant gains
(p<0.0005) on all of the measures of reading and related skills with large
effect sizes evident (‘d’ ranged from 0.96 to 1.41, with a mean of 1.08). Randomised
control trials have also been completed confirming the efficacy of the program.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2010). An experimental
evaluation of the</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">efficacy
of an intervention for young struggling readers in year one. <i>Special Education Perspectives, 19(2),</i>
35-57<i>.</i></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Buckingham, J., Wheldall, K., & Beaman-Wheldall,
R. (submitted for publication). A randomised control trial of a tier two small
group intervention for young struggling readers. Sydney: Macquarie University
Special Education Centre.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; text-align: right; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-size: 14px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4594597540556650323.post-80271039672125569412012-05-25T21:04:00.001+10:002012-07-29T16:29:22.607+10:00As Easy as IKEA IKEA has to
be one of my least favourite shopping venues. Doubtless many excellent homeware
products are available there if you are brave enough to enter the IKEA maze.
But, frankly, I break out in a cold sweat on the rare occasions I venture
inside and vow to take a ball of string next time, so that I’ll be able to find
my way out again. I have to admit, however, that I am always fascinated by the
Scandiwegian names of the various items on display. Last time I visited, I started
to copy some of the words down until I was put off by the nervous looks of
fellow shoppers who were clearly not as amused. ‘SNITSIG’ read one sign; STUVA
read another; and then came GORM, LEKSVIK, BOLMEN, MAMMUT, BARNSLIG and
SNIGLAR, like a troop of dwarves from Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If it were
not for the presence of the items themselves or the smaller explanatory labels
in English, I would not know to what these words referred. Nevertheless, I
could read them all aloud easily (if not necessarily pronounced totally correctly),
as could most young fluent readers who have been taught the alphabetic
principle of letter sound correspondence, also known as phonics. In fact,
walking through IKEA and reading the signs is a bit like taking the sort of reading
test we give young children to find out if they are making good progress in the
basics of learning to read. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Such tests
of ‘nonwords’, words that are phonically regular but have no meaning in English
like ‘snitsig’ or ‘gorm’, can be very useful. They help to tell us how well children
are able to decode unfamiliar words that they have not learned by sight as a
result of frequent repetition. If we were to use actual English words that are
phonically regular (like ‘tractor’, ‘comment’ or ‘chapter’) we could not be
sure that children were using phonic decoding skills; they may have memorised them
as whole ‘sight words’ from reading books.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Some
educators get hot under the collar about the use of nonword tests. They argue
that reading is about deriving meaning from the written word and since nonwords,
by definition, have no meaning, testing nonwords has to be a totally pointless
exercise. This argument misses the point about the use of nonword tests. I
don’t think anyone would claim that reading is only about accurate decoding
using phonics but knowledge of the alphabetic principle is a necessary (although
not, of course, sufficient) precondition for reading for meaning. If children
do not understand the words they are reading, they may indeed be said to be
merely ‘barking at print’. But if they cannot decode the words on the page in
the first place, they have no chance of utilising their existing knowledge of
word meanings <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
By using IKEA
type tests of meaningless nonwords, we can help to determine whether children
are progressing well in the important precondition of being able to decode
words. If they are, when they encounter unfamiliar words in future, they will
be able to use their phonic skills to sound out the word, relate it to a word
already in their spoken vocabulary and, hence, derive its meaning. Of course,
we also need to assess other aspects of a child’s reading skill such as reading
fluency and, especially, reading comprehension <i>per se</i>. But it would be a mistake to dismiss nonword tests as
irrelevant in the quest for meaning. Something to think about the next time you
go past the sniglar and the mammut in your quest to find that elusive IKEA exit.<o:p></o:p></div>Notes from Harefieldhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14515931412142615430noreply@blogger.com1